For many people, Japan is considered an example of a country with a stable and successful economic system. However, many do not know that this Asian state has been in crisis for 30 years. However, the achievements of past years smooth out the current problems. The Japanese economy is considered a market economy, but its history is not at all similar to the American one - the structure itself is different, which has undergone slight changes several times over a hundred years. Brownie explores what the Japanese economy is like, why it is successful, and how it achieved its best results.
What was the Japanese economy like in the 19th century?
At the end of the 19th century, Japan plunged into an era of change. The famous Meiji Restoration of the Edo era began, which changed the basic parameters of the economic system.
For many centuries, Japan's economy was built on a principle that is somewhat reminiscent of the European Middle Ages. Wars and imperial conquests brought more benefits than individual reforms. Generals played a very important role and controlled entire regions.
With great difficulty, all this can be called a full-fledged, state-run economy - hence the rather large lag. Isolation policies also played a big role, because until the end of the 19th century, Japan almost did not trade with other countries. By the beginning of the era of change, the country needed new reforms.
Industry and transport
The rapid development of agriculture contributed to the rise of industry and population growth. As a result of the expansion of settlements near the castle, the demand for wood necessary for housing construction increased, which pushed the development of forestry and woodworking. In addition, industrial fishing arose - sardines, bonito, whales, heringa and Kombu seaweed were caught. At the same time, salt production began to develop on the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan. The demand for the work of urushi varnishers, foundries and potters increased.
Japanese miners discovered new gold mines on Sado Island, silver mines in the Ikuno area of Settsu Province, and copper mines in the Ashio area of Shimotsuke Province. These metals were used to mint coins that were in circulation throughout Japan.
The shogunate paid due attention to the development of transport infrastructure. Five roads were built in the country, of which the main one was Tokaido - the route from Edo to Kyoto. Guest yards for travelers were evenly built along the roads. An efficient postal system was established using hikyaku messengers. In addition to land routes, water routes became of great importance, along which maritime trade between regions was actively carried out.
Economics of corporations. Zaibatsu
One of the foundations of the new Japanese economy is called zaibatsu. In modern language you can find a completely understandable analogue - a corporation, or a conglomerate. The country was divided into several zones, the economy of each of them was to be managed by a zaibatsu.
The state helped each of them, in return it was required to provide the country with jobs and a sustainable economy as such. Over the course of several decades, it became clear that such a system works.
What is a zaibatsu? For example, Mitsubishi. Now everyone knows the car brand with the same name, but this is one of the first examples of zaibatsu in Japan.
The corporation initially included a bank. Both mining and electronics manufacturing. As practice has shown, almost all zaibatsu repeat each other in composition. There is almost always a bank and equipment production. As well as minerals that are present in a specific geographical location.
Thus, one clan accumulates all efforts. And at the same time he develops each of the areas in which he is engaged. Let's say, if a bank brings in money, but mechanical engineering turns out to be unprofitable and requires investment. Then bank profits are transferred to factories. In case of unpleasant situations, losses are covered by the state.
Class system
Japanese society in the 17th-18th centuries was divided into classes based on professional characteristics. Traditional historiography distinguishes four main classes:
- Military;
- Peasants;
- Craftsmen;
- Traders.
The latest historical science identifies slightly different ones:
- Samurai;
- Peasants;
- Bourgeois (craftsmen and traders);
- Aristocrats;
- Clergymen.
The society was controlled by military samurai, who were responsible for the defense of the country and the performance of administrative and civil functions. The military had the privilege of wearing two samurai swords and the right to have a surname. The maintenance of military power, in turn, fell on the shoulders of the townspeople and peasants, the main producers of products and the main stimulators of trade turnover, and those who pay taxes.
Definition 1
Samurai are feudal lords in Japan, ranging from daimyo (major princes) to ordinary warriors; in a narrow sense - the military class of small nobles.
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The class system made it possible to maintain stability within Japanese society, in which different professional groups complemented each other. The estates did not have a hereditary nature and did not have strict boundaries, which allowed townspeople and peasants to become samurai for their services, and the samurai themselves to accept children from merchant or rural families into their families.
Outside the class system there was a group of pariahs, “untouchables.” Their professional occupations were waste disposal, cleaning, and leather tanning. They were the object of contempt from representatives of all other classes.
How World War II destroyed Japan's economy
The Japanese economy developed until the Second World War. In the late 1930s, Japan remembered its imperial status and tried (often successfully) to increase its influence in Asia.
However, after defeat in the war, the country found itself under occupation. As a country controlled by the United States, Japan was losing its armed forces. In exchange, the United States offered to help Japan rebuild its economy.
In the future, it became clear that Japan was dependent. However, it was initially clear that its economy still needed to be restored. Then the Japanese government remembered the zaibatsu system and slightly modified it.
The sphere of education, culture and religion.
The educational system was remade in a European manner. Young people could receive higher education and apply their knowledge in any sphere of the economy.
Conscription became a significant innovation for Japanese society. At the end of the 19th century, a decree on universal conscription was issued, which negatively affected the samurai's monopoly on military service. Their particular dissatisfaction was caused by the reduction in the size of state bonuses.
Buddhism, which was considered the accepted religion, was abolished. Instead, Shintoism was recognized. In this way, the government wanted to emphasize the superiority of the Japanese people over the rest of humanity.
Japan's new economic system. Keiretsu
New holdings/corporations created in Japan began to be called keiretsu. The new system was more global - for example, the territories were expanded. Which were assigned to one or another keiretsu.
The government also offered more assistance to corporations. It was achieved thanks to support from the United States. It is important to note that it was not cash injections that helped development more. And new technologies that changed the appearance of the country.
The US also provided Japan with an additional market. This is where what is commonly called the Japanese economic miracle began.
The right to engage in several industries at once gave the keiretsu great opportunities. All the benefits of the zaibatsu were multiplied by the exchange rate.
The Japanese government deliberately kept the artificial exchange rate at 300 yen per dollar. This made it possible to sell Japanese equipment in America at a very low price, for a small number of dollars.
And when the currency reached Japan, it brought significant income to companies. In recent years, people have often talked about this in Russia. That the more expensive the dollar is compared to the ruble, the richer the country will be. This is due to the fact that oil is sold for dollars. The argument is almost legitimate, but Russia buys a lot for the same dollars.
As for Japan, its economy was export-oriented. So the artificial exchange rate suited her completely. And in the first years, the American government did not interfere with these manipulations - still, responsibility was felt for the country that was under control.
The Japanese economy during the transition to imperialism
The policy of "state capitalism"
In an exceptionally short time, Japan achieved an industrial revolution. Having no inventions of her own, she borrowed them from more developed countries. The lack of private capital was compensated by the active role in industrialization of the state, which created the factory industry, especially heavy industry enterprises. The Japanese state supported private entrepreneurs by providing them with subsidies, tax exemptions, and selling built factories in installments to those industrial firms that carried out government orders. The Mitsui firm, which originated in the 16th century, enjoyed special government privileges. and became at the end of the 19th century. leading.
The state took over construction in the most complex and new industries for Japan - shipbuilding, glass, cloth, and silk-winding. The Japanese state maintained ten mining mines. The Department of Industry, created in 1870, managed the new enterprises. To purchase industrial equipment for its enterprises and necessary goods, the state bought and sold rice, tea, and silk on the world market. It also participated in the organization of banks. In 1872, the state built the first telegraph and railway lines in Japan, i.e. the creation of infrastructure has begun. The state organized a geological study of the country - deposits of coal, iron ore, and gold were discovered.
The lack of capital led to the attraction of foreign capital, with the participation of which large factory-type enterprises were built. In Japan, railway construction began with the help of foreign loans. English capital acquired a concession for coal mining. The Japanese government and foreign specialists were invited.
A peculiarity of Japan's economic development was the combination, within the same chronological framework, of the manufacturing, industrial and monopoly stages of the development of capitalism. In 1880 the first monopoly was formed. The Japanese Shipping Company, a shipbuilding and transport association created in 1882, also became a monopoly.
Since there was not enough capital, the enterprises built by private entrepreneurs (landowners, petty and middle bourgeoisie) were small, based on manual labor and processing of agricultural raw materials, as well as textile production. During the industrial revolution in 1878-1885. 800 manufactories were built in Japan.
Private Enterprise Policy and Industrialization Since the early 1880s, the Japanese government has been changing economic policy, abandoning "state capitalism." The industrial department is abolished. In 1881, a decree was adopted on the transfer of factories to private individuals. Moreover, enterprises created at the expense of the state budget, the income of which was generated at the expense of taxpayers, were sold at prices two to four times less than their value or were given to pay off government debts. Government creditors—the Minui, Minubishi, Sumitomo, and Yasuda families—took part in the plunder of state property.
Since this year, private entrepreneurship has intensified, which led to the movement of large capital from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production. Japan carried out monetary reform and introduced the gold standard.
Changes in economic policy contributed to the revival of industrial production. There was a concentration of production, and joint-stock companies were created. The revival primarily affected the textile industry: in 1897 it already had one million spindles. The first cartel, the Bosei Rengo-kai, was created and united the country's largest textile factories, although manual production remained. Industries with a domestic raw material base developed rapidly. Thus, coal production for 1880-1913. increased more than 20 times, copper - more than 18 times.
Ferrous metallurgy also developed, although Japan did not have its own raw materials and was inferior to European countries in metal production. However, Japanese industrialists accelerated the development of steel production, as it was necessary for the manufacture of weapons for the army and ships for the navy. For 1900-1913 The tonnage of ships built at Japanese shipyards increased 13 times.
Another direction of industrialization is railway construction: for 1882-1890. the length of steel highways increased tenfold, and a unified network of communications was formed in the country.
Industrialization was facilitated by the mentality of the Japanese nation: centuries-old skills of communal collective labor, exemplary accuracy, responsibility and organization. These qualities helped peasants moving to work in industry to quickly master various professions.
Economic crisis and militaristic path of development
Despite the development of industry, by the beginning of the 19th century. In Japan's total industrial production, the light and food industries predominated, their share reaching 90% of total production. At the same time, low wages and rural poverty determined the narrowness of the domestic market. In 1890, Japan experienced an economic crisis. Prices for imported cotton rose, those for yarn fell, and the production of cotton fabrics decreased. Exports of raw silk, which formed the basis of Japanese exports, decreased by half while rice prices rose due to crop failure.
Japan saw a way out of the crisis in the development of the foreign market, primarily the markets of Korea and China, in which the low quality of domestic products was compensated by cheapness.
In the early 1890s, Japan embarked on a militaristic path. The level of military spending in Japan was the highest in the world and amounted to 36% of the budget. The dispute between Japan and China over control of the Korean Peninsula led to the Sino-Japanese War. In 1894, Japan attacked China and won a number of victories. Thus, heavy industry received an incentive to develop. Under an agreement with China, Japan acquired the rights to expand Korea, a significant indemnity, and the right for Japanese citizens to open industrial enterprises in China.
The rise of industry was characterized by a military orientation. In 1895, a program for the development of the national economy was adopted, designed for ten years. It set the task of reorganizing and strengthening the armed forces, which provided for the creation of new industries (heavy and military). It was planned to build Japan's first metallurgical plant (state-owned), expand the railway network, telephone and telegraph communications. 90% of contributions were invested for these purposes. Already in 1903, the power supply of workers in the military industries increased 40 times. Military and commercial shipbuilding developed at a high pace.
How did the growth of the Japanese economy begin?
While the American government turned a deaf ear to the fraud, American manufacturers sounded the alarm. The fact is that Japanese equipment was sold in the USA for just pennies. Therefore, American companies were at a disadvantage. They couldn't cut prices that much.
Nowadays, almost no televisions are produced in America, although they still sell well. The reason is that Japanese manufacturers simply destroyed this area.
Japan exported its goods to many countries that were allied with the United States. Every year the level of exports increased and the economy grew. But the Japanese state did not even think about stopping - keiretsu received funding for technological progress.
That is, every year Japan became an increasingly formidable competitor in almost any international market it entered. The United States turned a blind eye to the situation until the 80s, until Japan became the second economy in the world.
Experts understood that over time Japan would be able to overtake the United States. As a result, manipulations with the exchange rate were stopped, and Japan began to live according to general laws.
Social division in Japan.
The new bureaucracy was formed from former princes and samurai who had lost their independence. Although they did not have decent experience, they did not become corrupt and did not interfere with the improvement of the state.
In 1872, a reform was carried out, thanks to which three classes appeared in society:
• the highest nobles, which included aristocrats who were at court and former princes;
• nobility, consisting of former samurai;
• ordinary people and the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie.
National characteristics of the Japanese economy
It so happened that many of the features of Japanese upbringing fit perfectly into their economic system. Education has traditionally been highly valued in Asian countries.
Teachers there are treated like priests who are able to give a child a chance for a successful life. Therefore, people are always ready to spend a lot of money to ensure that their children study as best as possible.
Japan in this sense is not an exception at all, but one of the most striking examples. Even in the times of the zaibatsu, this feature helped. However, during the time of keiretsu it became even more useful, because the technological process was very fast. And it required well-trained people. As a result, a passion for education helped not only to adopt technologies, but also to quickly adapt them to their circumstances.
Another important feature of Japanese education is devotion. The fact is that people treat their keiretsu with the same devotion as they treat their parents or friends.
Switching from Toyota to Mitsubishi, for example, will be condemned by society. As a rule, if a person wants to change his type of activity. Then he changes companies within the same keiretsu. Statistics show that the Japanese change several times fewer jobs during their lives than the same Americans.
Of course, such devotion is especially highly valued if the company is not in the best condition. It is also useful because experienced employees are in leadership positions. Who know their company very well from the inside. It just so happened that many Japanese traditions turned out to be a reliable support for economic prosperity. Which is built on progress and globalization.
Sela
The Japanese economy of the Edo era was semi-subsistence in nature and dependent on tribute rice supplies. Its collection was carried out in villages by local officials - village heads nanusi or shoya, heads of fives and peasant delegates who controlled communal arable land, mountains and waters, and also performed various administrative functions. Decisions were made collectively. Residents of the villages were divided into fives, their members were in mutual responsibility, jointly paying tribute and preventing the commission of crimes. In one village, there were customs of mutual assistance between the fives.
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In order to stabilize the supply of tribute in rice, the shogunate banned the sale of land and limited the peasants, concentrating them exclusively on field work and various duties. Most villages paid taxes on time, considering them a matter of national importance. However, sometimes exorbitant exactions forced peasants to complain to the daimyo or directly to the shogun, or, in extreme cases, to start peasant uprisings.
How has the Japanese economy affected the real estate market?
While the keiretsu were getting rich, ordinary company employees were also getting rich. People's incomes grew rapidly, so the population actively invested. Of course, this also influenced overall economic progress.
One of the most popular areas for investment is the real estate market. Every year the interest rate at which people took out loans decreased. Again, due to the growing economy and very low number of non-performing loans. This is where the problems began, as many began to speculate.
It is believed that the active phase of this process began in the 80s. In 1986, a Japanese person with a good credit history could take out a loan at 0.1% per annum - that is, over 10 years he had to overpay only 1 percent of the amount borrowed.
It was with credit money that people began to buy real estate, after which they quickly sold it for much more. The process of speculation began, when housing was bought for one amount, and a year later it was sold for much more.
As a result, already in 1989 a square meter in Tokyo could cost more than a million dollars. Obviously, the speculative system could not work forever - it ends the moment the buyer disappears. Because of this, the entire chain collapses. And the more expensive the property, the less likely it is to find a buyer for it.
The state understood where everything was going and sharply increased interest rates in banks to 4% per annum. Naturally, it was at this moment that the entire chain collapsed, because all the new buyers disappeared.
People who had already bought homes for millions lost the opportunity to sell them. Therefore, they could not repay the loan. Non-repayments began, real estate became the property of banks. And people almost stopped taking new loans.
We can say that over the course of a decade the economic system accelerated, after which they tried to artificially stop it. A situation similar to the real estate market happened with securities.
Considering that people often gave preference to their native keiretsu, this hit Japanese manufacturers, which influenced the rise in prices. Growing too quickly had a disease-causing effect the moment it stopped.
Why did the Japanese economic crisis happen?
When the crisis began, Japan was the second largest economy in the world. After this, stagnation began and China grew sharply, taking the place of Japan. We have been seeing the situation for 30 years now. When the third largest economy in the world is a country that has not overcome its crisis. Real estate is still very expensive in Japan, and there is practically no economic growth.
Due to the large non-repayment of loans, the state began to allocate money to banks. Rising prices affected consumption. Luxury goods that play a large role in a market economy. They lost their relevance, which also affected the keiretsu’s income.
At the same moment, South Korea, which could export goods at a lower price than Japan, was peaking. Just when the keiretsu were about to make another technological breakthrough, they had to patch up holes in their financial statements.
There was no need to wait for investments from other countries - no one wants to invest money in such an unstable situation. Their own citizens also refused to purchase securities.
Just a few years of over-the-top consumption and speculation slowed down an economy that had been growing at gigantic rates for several decades.
Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
The examples of the railroad and the silk factory illustrate the enormous contribution that Western technicians and government-employed scientists made to the development of Japanese industry. In total, about 3,000 foreign specialists arrived in Japan, and at the peak of modernization in 1876, more than 500 of them were working in the country. Their knowledge and qualifications were paid more than generously - for example, British engineer Thomas Kinder received a monthly salary of 1045 yen for work at the Imperial Mint, while Japanese high-ranking official Sanjo Sanetomi earned 800 yen per month as chief minister. Such generosity in payment for the services of Western specialists indicates the Japanese government’s desire to modernize the country’s industry.
The Ministry of Internal Affairs organized the first Industrial Exhibition of Japan in 1877 in Ueno Park and held a total of five exhibitions, the last of which was held in 1903. The exhibitions were influenced by world exhibition events in other countries and contributed to the development of modern industry and commerce. The first exhibition featured 84,000 products across six categories including agriculture, horticulture and engineering. It was a great success and attracted 450,000 visitors in 102 days.
First Japanese Industrial Exhibition (Kobayashi Kiyochika, 1877, courtesy of the Library of the Diet of Japan)
In the early 1880s, Finance Minister Matsukata Masayoshi pursued a deflationary policy that caused agricultural prices to fall and bankrupted many farmers, but some wealthy people benefited by buying up cheap farmland from those who were broke and becoming "landlords". parasites,” who made large profits by renting out land. Together with the city's wealthy merchants, they began buying and selling shares and creating new companies. The peak of the company formation boom occurred in the three years beginning in 1886.
Matsukata Masayoshi (1835-1924) served as Minister of Finance several times, and twice as Prime Minister, in 1891-1892 and 1896-1898 (photo courtesy of the Library of the Diet of Japan)
The spinning industry, sericulture and other light industries soon began to flourish. A private spinning mill in Osaka installed many English spinning machines, which marked the beginning of large-scale mechanized production using steam engines. Workers worked in shifts day and night to keep the factory running 24 hours a day and ensure the production of huge quantities of cotton yarn. By the way, many of the workers who worked long hours for little pay were the children of bankrupt farmers who became victims of deflationary policies. The extreme cheapness of production prompted other entrepreneurs, who saw the potential for profit, to create similar companies in other places. Mass production and export of cotton and silk yarn allowed for the industrial revolution in light industry at the end of the 19th century. Less than 30 years after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the country had established a capitalist economy.
Causes of the demographic crisis in Japan
Despite the fact that the Japanese economy still cannot reach its potential capacity. This country has more dangerous problems. For example, demographics. The large number of jobs and the need for labor led the country to a very low birth rate.
The emancipation of women led them to choose between a career and having children, and not many chose the second option. Given Japan's longevity, the country found itself in that situation. When the pension burden is steadily growing, and the low birth rate cannot support the pension system in the long term.
That is, Japan has an aging population that is steadily declining. At the moment, the country is refusing migrants, but in the long term a situation may arise where the economy will not work without them.
Economic development of Japan in the 18th-19th centuries.
Economy of Japan in the 18th century.
Shifts in the economy
In the 18th century Japan was an agricultural country. Its population consisted mainly of peasants (80% of the total) and samurai. Craftsmen and merchants appeared. The state and military apparatus, as well as the intelligentsia, were formed from among the ruling class - the samurai.
The situation of the peasantry remained difficult, since it received land from the feudal lords on the basis of an “eternal” lease. Despite the fact that there was no serfdom here, the peasants did not have the opportunity to change their place of residence, as well as their occupation. During this period, the main duty of the peasants was rent in kind.
In addition, they were involved in the repair of roads, bridges, and canals. There were laws in force in the country that strictly regulated the life and behavior of the Japanese peasantry.
City dwellers were considered a lower class than peasants, although their property status was much better. There was a union of artisans and merchants into unions such as guilds and guilds. It was allowed to raise rich merchants to the rank of samurai.
However, the 18th century. brought the onset of an economic crisis. It consisted in the fact that the development of commodity-money relations intensified, penetrating into the life of both villages and cities, into the economy of both feudal lords and peasants. The economic role of townspeople increased.
Ieyasu's agrarian reform in the 16th century, aimed at maintaining reproduction in agriculture, delimiting classes and assigning peasants to their lands, made possible the maximum collection of taxes from the peasantry.
This was a condition for the very existence of feudal society, the formation and development of which became possible thanks to the formation of large economic regions. At the same time, the very formation of territorial specialization was a consequence of the development of the commodity economy. Such interdependence with the cessation of internecine wars of the feudal lords deepened more and more.
As they were drawn into commodity-economic relations, the samurai and the peasantry, who depended on agriculture and its products, became poor. Most of the princely houses (daimyo) began to decline, their wealth and power decreased. Since the samurai institution was deprived of the necessary material support, it decayed. A very difficult situation forced the peasants to go to the cities. Some peasants were forced to join the urban economy using the system of “dispersed manufacturing.” In the 18th century 90 manufactories were organized in Japan, including cotton and silk weaving factories.
Increasing the role of cities
On the other hand, the role of the merchants, who held trading capital in their hands, increased. During this period, a layer of so-called “new landowners” began to emerge in the Japanese countryside.
formed from among merchants, moneylenders, wealthy peasants, even samurai. Thus, the capitalist structure was gradually formed. The economic and social position of cities gradually strengthened. The number of their inhabitants grew. So, at the beginning of the 18th century. the population of Edo alone was over 500 thousand. With the development of culture, especially in cities, printed publications are increasingly becoming commodities, and works of applied art are in great demand on the market. Their list grew as the population's living standards and consumption levels rose. Products made of varnish, porcelain, and dyed fabrics were brought to the market.
The rise in living standards of the urban population is associated with the development of such a sector of the economy as construction.
In the 18th century In the cities, two-story shops were built that belonged to wealthy merchants, and in order to prevent fires, the buildings were coated with clay and covered with tiles.
The development of the urban economy and the emergence of many “sedentary” professions stimulated the development of clothing production and the creation of suits for mass consumption, taking into account the nature of its activities.
At the same time, the ideology of the city dweller “the path of the city dweller” was taking shape,
opposed to the “way of the samurai”: the conviction of the need to defend the life ideal of a city dweller, busy with his own business and caring about making a profit. “Profit”, “accumulation of wealth”, “material interest”, “one’s own business” - these values became increasingly important in Japanese society in the 18th century.
However, the Japanese, who have always professed the cult of harmony, could not allow the impoverishment of the countryside caused by the prosperity of cities and the development of a commodity economy.
Shogun reforms
In 1716, the eighth shogun Tokugawa, in order to curb this process and strengthen the feudal system, began to carry out reforms, continued after 1767 by the tenth shogun Ieharu, who tried to adapt to the development of a commodity economy based on cooperation with the merchants close to the feudal government. But the power of money generated by the alliance of the shogunate with the merchants became the subject of harsh criticism, and the politician Tanuma, responsible for the reforms, was removed from his post. Since 1789, Matsudaira Sadanobu also began to carry out reforms, which were essentially a continuation of the previous reforms of 1716-1735. They were based on a policy of economy and reduction in government spending. Officials were severely punished for bribes, rice merchants were forced to reduce the interest rate at which they lent rice, large landowners were taxed and required to create reserves in case of crop failure. At the same time, the labor service of peasants was eased and partially abolished, the irrigation system was improved, etc.
Like many of his predecessors, Sadanobu saw a way out of the situation in a return to the customs of old Japan. In order to cleanse the administrative system and improve finances, he carried out measures aimed at promoting the economy, providing assistance to the samurai, and stopping the process of ruining the village. With Sadanobu's resignation in 1793, his policy of “purifying” the social system came to naught.
Economy of Japan in the 19th century.
Beginning of the 19th century in Japan was marked by serious popular unrest caused by crisis phenomena in agriculture. The peasants spoke out, and the townspeople followed their example. However, the power of the shoguns remained unshakable, and this was greatly facilitated by the revival of Confucianism.
Reasons for Japan's lagging behind
In the 19th century, as many centuries ago, Confucianism
had a real impact on the way of life of the Japanese with such values as family strength, paternalism, reverence for elders, the cult of ethical standards, the cult of learning and education, etc.
The reforms of 1830-1840, which Mizuno Tadakuni tried to carry out during the reign of the twelfth shogun Ieyoshi, were the last attempt to strengthen the feudal system. They continued previous reforms that pursued the goal of austerity. Thus, decrees were issued prohibiting all excesses, including smoking tobacco. Merchants were subject to high taxes. A decree was issued on “monitoring the morals of society”, attempts were made to establish price control and return the peasants living in the city to the village.
Describing these reforms, Japanese historians note that they pursued not only the task of promoting the economy, improving morals and regulating finances. They also provided for the implementation of measures that contained absolutist tendencies and were designed to strengthen centralized power. Thus, it was planned to establish the jurisdiction of the shogunal government over the territory around Edo, to introduce direct control over the traders who had recently become rich and appeared among the rural population. But such a policy met with opposition from various strata of society and in 1843 Tadakuni was forced to resign. This marked the beginning of the crisis of the Tokugawa shogunate.
In the second half of the 40s of the XIX century. The government was forced to abandon the policy of isolating the country, and problems arose in relations with other states. The government and clans began intensive development of European technology. But in their aspirations they were limited only to the military equipment necessary to strengthen military power. So, in 1848, the Nabeshima clan began to cast cannons. Then the Satsuma clan began producing military equipment and built a metallurgical plant. The head of this clan, Shimazu Nariakira, an outstanding politician, was the first to accept the achievements of European civilization; his military and financial assistance had a great influence on state policy at the end of the Edo period. After Japan's isolation was lifted and the ports opened, this clan, with the help of England, built a mechanized spinning mill.
The government, relying on French assistance, built a shipyard in Yokosuka.
In general, for the first half of the 19th century. 181 new manufactories were built in Japan. Some technical improvements began to be applied, in particular in mining and metal smelting. Spinning and weaving production developed especially, where the displacement of guild crafts was noticeable. In addition to textile manufactories, enterprises arose in sugar, porcelain and earthenware, and pottery. As for the distribution of property, most of the manufactories, especially those producing weapons, belonged to large feudal lords and the state. The labor of runaway peasants was used in state-owned manufactories.
Crisis of the feudal system. "Discovery of Japan"
The mid-19th century was one of the most dramatic periods in Japanese history. The regime of the Tokugawa shoguns, who kept the country in the grip of feudal orders for more than two and a half centuries, collapsed. With its fall, the country's population pinned hopes for an improvement in life, but the rulers had other plans: they sought to transform the country into a militarily and economically strong power as quickly as possible.
At the same time, other processes were also taking place: some wealthy principalities took advantage of the weakening of the shoguns, prospering from smuggling trade and, as shown above, developing their own industry.
In addition, in the middle of the 19th century. the "discovery of Japan" takes place
European powers and the United States. For 200 years, Japan avoided contact with the West. Self-isolation came to an end on July 8, 1853, when a squadron of US ships appeared in Tokyo harbor. Squadron commander Matthew Colbright Peri demanded that Japan open its ports to American trade. In 1854, an unequal treaty between Japan and the United States was concluded to open the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships. This was followed by agreements with other states, which led to Japan's inclusion in the world market. One of the consequences of such a treaty - flooding the country with American goods - had a negative impact on Japanese production: Japanese raw materials and food were exported for next to nothing. The country was gripped by anti-foreign and anti-shogun unrest, in which the broad masses of peasants and townspeople, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, part of the aristocracy, as well as large opposition feudal lords took part. The civil war began.
Revival of the idea of Imperial power
The authorities resort to ideology as a last resort. In order to reassure their subjects so that they agree to endure, the authorities decide to instill in them an idea that would justify the hardships they endure, discipline them and mobilize them to achieve achievements in the name of their goal. This is the idea of filial devotion to the emperor. The long-forgotten emperor turns into a national-patriotic symbol of the country. An ideology is born based on filial devotion to the emperor, whose power is sanctified by his divine origin. This is the concept of the "unique Japanese national essence"
apologetics for Japan as the “country of the gods.”
This idea formed the basis of the official cult introduced by the authorities, which later received the name State Shinto.
Japanese scholars emphasize that in this idea there is no place for the individual, that it gives a person the only right (it is also a duty!) - to be a loyal subject of the adored emperor, and if necessary, to die for him. Having established itself, this idea subsequently played an important role in the creation of the “Japanese economic miracle.”
Meiji Revolution (1867-1868)
In 1868, imperial rule was restored. Japan is led by the 16-year-old Emperor Mutsihito. His reign was called Meiji
those.
enlightened government. In fact, it was a period of important political events and socio-economic transformations. Therefore, the Meiji coup is considered a bourgeois revolution
of 1867-1868, which brought Japan to the level of world powers.
The young emperor surrounded himself with able ministers and advisers, and in his first year he moved the capital of Japan from Kyoto to Edo, renamed Tokyo,
and began a program of reform.
Major socio-economic and political transformations:
1) completion of the process of state unification. Feudal principalities were abolished and prefectures were created; the formation of a centralized state is a decisive factor in the transformation of Japan into a powerful world power;
2) the feudal system, the feudal rights of princes and samurai were abolished; the decree of 1869 obliged the feudal lords to transfer their possessions to the emperor;
3) all state restrictions on occupations and professions were abolished, the guild system, guilds and clans were eliminated;
4) class inequality in economic activity was abolished, freedom of trade and movement throughout the country was proclaimed;
5) a new class division of society was established. If before there were four estates, now there are three. The nobility represented the upper class (it included former feudal princes and the court aristocracy). The second estate is the nobility (all former samurai). And the third is the estate of the common people. It includes the rest of the population, including the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie;
6) all internal customs were removed, a single monetary unit was introduced (price with gold backing).*
*In 1870, Emperor Mutsihito replaced the traditional shogun coin with the dragon dollar. The Japanese began to call the dollar yen (“round coin*”)
and the cent is
sen.
Ten sen note 1872
Japanese dollar
Of course, these measures contributed to the formation of a single all-Japanese market,
single economic space.
Nevertheless, the revolution is considered unfinished. The new political regime protected the interests of the landowners, although the bourgeoisie was also allowed to come to power. The highest government positions were given to the court nobility. The reforms were ambiguous and carried out gradually. The feudal elements were not immediately broken up, but adapted to new economic conditions.
Agrarian reform
In 1872-1873 Agrarian reform was carried out in Japan. It had to solve the problem of eliminating feudal land ownership and forming new land owners. Formally, land without redemption was assigned as private property to those who actually managed it. Peasants, hereditary holders of land plots, became their owners.
To include daimyo and samurai in business activities (industry, banking, trade, agriculture), the Japanese government resorted to “capitalization of pensions”
which consisted of a lump sum payment of pensions several years in advance (half in cash, half in government bonds). Despite the protest of the samurai, this measure was declared mandatory in 1876. The amount of funds was equal to the payment of pensions for 5-14 years.
In 1873, a land tax was introduced -
main source of the state budget. It applied to all landowners. Its size reached 50% of the harvest taken from a plot of land.
Planting rice
Thus, private ownership of land was legalized in Japan;
free purchase and sale of land is allowed, new categories of land owners have appeared; business opportunities were provided to former land owners. All this created the preconditions for capitalist forms of production.
However, the bulk - the peasants - did not have the opportunity to do this, since they had lost a significant amount of land. Part of the communal land ended up with the emperor. The lands that were rented or mortgaged by peasants before the reform went to the “new landowners.” Therefore, most of the peasant farms were left either without land or with little land and were forced to rent it under difficult conditions. Thus, semi-feudal relations were maintained in the village, which also reflects the incompleteness of the revolution.
Why Japan does not have a market economy
Sometimes people point to some kind of economy and say that we need to do the same. The case of Japan shows how unique any system is.
South Korea also tried to recreate keiretsu, calling them chaebol. However, their prosperity was helped by a centralized export policy.
Japan flirted with a market economy. But only as long as it was profitable. Keiretsu have always been more important than small private industries. After all, they got more help.
For this reason, Japan is hardly an example of a market economy. Moreover, the political situation in the international arena played a very important role. Traditions also played a big role. It is not only a matter of the cult of education and devotion, but also the presence of a zaibatsu.
They were successful for their time, but do not even hold a candle to future keiretsu, which initially had markets with a large number of buyers. However, a well-functioning system allowed Japan to quickly reformat its enterprises and begin a new economic life after the war.
Japan 17th-19th century
During the reign of the shogunate, Japan was a federation. A quarter of the state's territory was owned by the Tokugawa shogun family, and the rest by three hundred provincial daimyo lords. Daimyo were divided into classes of "relatives", "old vassals" and "new vassals", in accordance with the degree of subordination to the shogun. They owned personal independent fiefs of the khan, the area of which was established by the capital's leadership. To prevent revolts, the government curtailed the political opportunities of its subjects by the “Laws of Military Houses”, in addition, it reduced the wealth of their possessions by necessary trips to the seat of government in Edo. The shogunate also took away all the land plots of the emperor's house, guaranteeing to maintain them at its own expense.
Ieyasu
In the first half of the 17th century, the Japanese government was interested in interacting with European countries and stopped the persecution of Christians. In an attempt to develop interstate trade and reap most of the benefits from it, the shogunate in 1604 made it necessary to license Japanese ships sailing overseas to Southeast Asia. At the same time, the struggle in Japan between Protestant Holland and England on the one hand and Catholic Portugal and Spain on the other threatened to drag Japan into the war of these countries. Because of this, Japan began to implement a policy of limiting ties with Europe and its colonies, later called sakoku.
In 1614, the shogunate banned Christianity, considering it a means of foreign influence. Thousands of Japanese Christians were persecuted, and going abroad, where there was an opportunity to be baptized, was impossible. For this reason, in 1637, some peasants and samurai on the island of Kyushu, who professed Christianity, staged a rebellion in Shimabara. The shogunate pacified the rebels within a year, and in 1639, in order to completely eliminate Christianity, issued a decree prohibiting American and European ships from arriving in Japan. Incentives were given to Holland, whose ships, which assisted in suppressing the uprising, received an exclusive opportunity to trade on the artificial island of Dejima in Nagasaki.
Torture of Christians
From the 17th to the mid-19th century, despite the severance of communication with Europe, Japan maintained political and trade relations with its old partners: Korea, China, and the Ryukyu. The Japanese traded with these countries in Tsushima, Dejima, Satsuma and southern Hokkaido.
Socio-economic development of Japan in the 17th-19th centuries
Japanese society of the Edo era was class-based and divided into 4 large classes: samurai warriors, peasants, merchants and artisans. The state was ruled exclusively by the samurai nobility. The class system did not include pariahs engaged in menial labor: waste management, prison service, cleaning. The dominant religions were Buddhism and Shintoism. There was a procedure for registering residents of Buddhist monasteries by area of residence. Christianity was not allowed, causing its adherents to remain underground. The official ideological philosophy of the state was Neo-Confucianism, which gained its strongest popularity during the reign of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi and during the activities of the researcher Arai Hakuseki. It was taught at the national academy, which was founded by Hayashi Rajan. Under the influence of Neo-Confucianism, the bushido samurai code was founded.
Tsunayoshi
Dejima, Dutch trading post
The economy of Edo-era Japan was half subsistence. The state used silver and gold coins as money, but tribute and wages were paid in rice. Therefore, villages, the main suppliers of rice and payers of tribute, were of particular importance. Japanese villages were governed by heads, but important decisions were approved collectively. A scheme of mutual responsibility and mutual assistance was adopted in the settlements. To support the village, the government did not allow peasants to sell land and move to cities. Thanks to this course, in the 17th century, peasants doubled the size of all arable land in the state, created new tools and began to grow industrial plants - hemp, tea, cotton, rapeseed and all kinds of dyes.
Sale of grain and brushwood
The prosperity of agriculture was helped by the progress of transport and industry. The main areas were forestry, pottery, salt making, and the production of consumer goods. The system of land and sea routes was improved, and a pan-Japanese messenger post was established. During the Edo period, there was no social disturbance in Japanese society, which is why this era is called the period of “Tokugawa peace.”
Cities concentrated the political, commercial and cultural spheres of life in Japan. The largest of the cities were the “capitals” of self-governing territories and had castles on their land. Mostly samurai lived in the cities. They were served by the townspeople - artisans and merchants. The capital of the country was considered to be Kyoto, the central city of power was Edo, and the most important economic core of the state was Osaka.
How long will the crisis in Japan last?
Interestingly, for a long time the 90s in Japan were called the lost decade. People understood that the economy had slowed down for a long time. However, over time it became clear. That not just one decade was lost, but many more years. The 2000s were better than the 90s, and the 10s were better than the 2000s.
However, there is no need to talk about the previous growth rates now. All this is superimposed on demographic problems, which have only worsened.
Therefore, Japan has no special hopes for a future economic miracle. It is likely that the recovery process may simply never end.
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