The Nara period and the “rule of law” in Ancient Japan

Definition 1

The Nara period is a period in the history of Japan from 710 to 794, which began with the restoration of the capital (the modern city of Nara); the features of this period include the active sinicization of the Japanese population and the flourishing of culture and poetry.

In 701, the first Taiho Code of Laws was developed in Japan, and the entire system of governing the country based on it was called the “rule of law.” The code was drawn up according to the Chinese model, but also had original Japanese provisions.

Formation of the Japanese state

The first mentions of ancient Japan are reflected in historical chronicles of the 1st century AD. Chinese Han Empire. The chronicles say that the ancient Japanese inhabited the islands in the East Sea, after which they established relations with China and sent it tribute.

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According to another source - the 3rd century compilation of the Chinese Wei Empire, which was called “The Legend of the Wa People”, there is a mention of 30 Japanese countries, among which Yamatai was the most powerful. It is said that the ruler of the country of Yamatai, a woman named Himiko, was in power for a long time, using “charms to stupefy people.”

In 710, the capital of Japan became the city of Heijo; China and its capital Chang'an also served as a model for its construction. 66 provinces were subordinate to the Heijo authorities, which in turn were further divided into counties and settlements. All provinces had connections with the capital through 7 tracks on which stations were located.

During the Nara period, the bureaucratic structure that is so hated by modern people fully took shape and flourished. Ministries appear, a large number of ranks and posts, which even in ancient times were obtained thanks to the influence of the family and its financial condition.

Jomon period (Neolithic).

The Jomon period dates back to: 13 thousand years BC - III century. BC. It is named after the type of ceramics with rope (an impression of a rope on clay) ornament (“ jomon ”). The Jomon culture was widespread throughout the archipelago (from Hokkaido to Ryukyu), its representatives were a sedentary people engaged in gathering, hunting and fishing. The Jomon people had close contacts with the mainland. There are two large settlement areas, the border between which runs approximately at the latitude of modern Tokyo. Agriculture is in its infancy, religious ideas are primitive.

Emperor's power

The emperor (tenno) was considered the head of the state; he managed external relations and led the army, but even he was not an absolute monarch, since in addition to the emperor, there was a “Chamber of the Great Council of State” in Japan, which restrained his influence, a frequent occurrence when under the emperor his predecessor acted.

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The position of officials was determined by a system of nine ranks, which in turn was divided into senior and junior positions; in addition, ranks from the fourth to the ninth were further divided into upper and lower levels. The higher an official was in this system, the more money and all sorts of privileges he received for this, which is so similar to the current situation throughout the world.

The emperor had three authorities directly subordinate to him:

The Supreme Political Council (dajōkan), which included aristocrats.
The House of Heavenly Deities (jingikan) was responsible for religious ceremonies. Strange as it may sound, during the Nara period the emperor could control even the gods.
The department that controls the implementation of laws (danjotayo) - today they can be compared to the modern court system and police.

All lands and its inhabitants were the property of the state. According to the “Land Allotment Law,” men and women over 6 years of age could receive a state land allotment, but only for one generation; for the use of the land, they had to pay taxes to the Japanese authorities on crops, local goods or fabric, in addition to this once every perform labor duties for a year in the amount of two months each year.

Adult men were liable for military service. During this period, the entire population of Japan was divided into "free people" and "vile people" (the latter were slaves). The population of the capital Heijo consisted of 100 thousand people, of which 10 thousand were officials, the highest ranks were occupied by the emperor's courtiers, who were called kuge.

Along with the formation of the political and economic systems of Japan, work was carried out to create the history of the country. In 712, “Records of Ancient Affairs” was published, six years later the work “Annals of Japan”, “Records of Regional Customs” was written. These works were compiled with the aim of proving the ancient origin of the monarchy in the country in order to further build equal relations with China.

Successful transformations contributed to an increase in population, which subsequently led to the depletion of Japan's land fund, and the area of allotments also decreased. In order to solve this problem, Emperor Shomu issues the “Laws on the Perpetual Privatization of Land”, this law supported subjects to develop land and encouraged the acquisition of private property, but subject to the payment of taxes to the state, this law served the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time it was contrary to the “rule of law”, which was based on state property.

Nara - the cradle of Japanese statehood

The period in the history of Japan, starting in 710 (the capital was moved to the current city of Nara) and ending in 794 (the capital was moved to Kyoto), was called the “Nara era.” During this era, Japan adopted the RITSURYO legal system from China (see comments) and finally acquired the form of a centralized state. It was during the Nara era that both the name of the country “NIPPON” and the title of the emperor “TENNO” arose.

Before this era, Japan was not a separate state. From the middle of the 3rd century, a “historical era” gradually began to be established here - when the main events were not transmitted only orally, but began to be written down. The main historical figures of this time were influential local clans that pursued coalition governance policies until the 7th century. One of these clans was the Yamato clan - the ancestors of the modern imperial family - which gradually acquired power and influence, and then in the 5-6 centuries “took root” in the Kansai region (where the modern cities of Nara and Osaka are located). From the end of the 6th century, the Yamato clan was finally founded in Asuka Province (the central region of present-day Nara Prefecture) and gradually developed and conquered the main territory of the Japanese islands. The period of 100-150 years before the onset of the “Nara era” is called the “Asuka era” - at this time Buddhism came to Japan through the Korean Peninsula, and advanced mainland culture came from China. At that moment (late 6th century), China, after more than 400 years of unrest, was united by the Sui dynasty, after which the following Tang dynasty (618-907) formed a powerful empire that stretched from the East China Sea to the Central Asian desert and actually modified geopolitical map of East Asia. The capital of the empire, Changan (the current city of Xian), at that time was one of the largest international cities in the world. Under the influence of mainland culture from China and religious innovations that came through Korea, the rapid development of Buddhist culture began in Japan during the Asuka era.

The capital of Japan at that time “walked” through the Kansai region with incredible speed - with the change of emperor (at this time emperors were called “dai-o” or “o-kimi”) the capital changed its place - in 100 years it was moved more than 10 times. Although thanks to such “nomadism”, the greatest cultural monuments remained in various parts of the region (such as the Horyuji Temple in the town of Asuka - the temple is the oldest wooden structure in the world).

In the “Asuka era”, the influence of local clans still remained, but gradually they were all subordinated and merged into one centralized state, which was finally consolidated by two events - the release of the first set of laws in Japan called “Taiho” and the transfer of the capital to the city of “Heijo”. "(current Nara). Thus, the city of Nara is a kind of birthplace of Japanese statehood.

The emperor was the actual ruler of the country for only a few hundred years - it was during the Asuka and Nara eras, after which the court aristocracy, and subsequently the military samurai class, took over actual power, leaving the emperor with only symbolic responsibilities.

From the beginning of the 7th to the end of the 9th century (the Asuka and Nara eras), for about 250 years, Japan constantly sent missions to China that adopted mainland culture and actively introduced it into their homeland. First these were missions to Sui Dynasty China, and then to Imperial Tang. Thus, the capital of Nara, where all new products were brought from the mainland, was, as it were, the final eastern link of the Silk Road that connected Europe and Asia. In that era, many different household items and cultural masterpieces were brought to Nara from India, Persia, and European countries, which made the city the first “international center” of the country. It was during the “Nara era” that the “Tenpyo culture” began to flourish rapidly - an original cultural era that combined elements of traditional Japanese and mainland cultures.

NOTES:

Legal system "RITSURYO". A centralized state government system characteristic of the countries of ancient East Asia. The system is based on the idea of complete subordination of the entire territory and population of the state to the emperor. The emperor “allotted” his land to the population and collected taxes, labor and military duties as “rent”. For the final and irrefutable consolidation of this system, a systematic set of laws “RITSURYO” was created, which was subject to mandatory execution by all “civil servants” of that time. Translated into modern realities, “RITSU” included administrative and criminal legislation, and “RE” included civil law.

Diplomatic missions to SUY and TAN. The first mission to China by the XUI dynasty was sent in 607. After the collapse of SUY and the birth of the Chinese empire of the TAN dynasty, 12-15 diplomatic missions were sent to TAN (from 630 for about 200 years). Each mission consisted of 2-4 ships, which carried several hundred scientists, religious and government officials, as well as students. Upon returning to Japan, they brought with them a huge number of Buddhist sutras, books, art objects, as well as all sorts of the latest technologies from the mainland. However, due to sea storms and bad weather, only a very small number of envoys made it back to Japan, so such missions were accompanied by a very high risk of death.

International relationships

Japanese emperors actively imported Chinese statecraft through their ambassadors and trainees to the Tang Empire. Japanese students, mostly Buddhist monks, studied in the cities of Chang'an and Luoyang. One of the trainees, Abe no Nakamaro, was able to pass difficult exams in Chinese classics and obtain a government position in China. He served as head of the conquered region of Annam (modern northern Vietnam) from 761 to 767. However, most of the trainees returned home to high positions in the Japanese court.

Despite the normalization of relations with Tang China after conflict in the mid-7th century, Japanese relations with the Korean state of Silla remained tense. This was facilitated by the creation on the territory of modern Manchuria of the state of Bohai (698-926), the heir to the North Korean state of Koguryo destroyed by Sillan troops. Japan and Bohai were in an alliance against Silla, but the latter's close relationship with the Tang prevented direct allied aggression.

In general, the foreign policy of the Japanese during the Nara period was not active.

At the same time, we must not forget that Nara Japan was much smaller in territory than the modern Land of the Rising Sun: the tribes of the south of the island of Kyushu and the adjacent islands (“southern barbarians” - hayato), as well as the peoples of the north of the island of Honshu, were not controlled by the tenno authorities. The latter were called in the sources “shrimp eastern barbarians” (Emisi), who are considered the ancestors of the Ainu.

The war with Emisi was not easy. The expansion of the Japanese to the north of Honshu, which continued in the 8th century, met fierce resistance from the Emishi. In 720 the province of Deva was formed. In 709 and 720, there were Emishi uprisings against the newcomers, which, however, were suppressed. In 724, on the northern borders of Japanese defense against the “barbarians”, in the province of Mutsu, the Taga fortress was founded. In 733, a chain of defensive structures was created in the north to repel raids by the Emishi Deva Noki. Large-scale deportations of conquered Emishi were carried out to other provinces of Japan. Under Fujiwara no Nakamaro, who for a short time in the mid-8th century proved to be the most influential dignitary at court, his son Fujiwara no Asakari was appointed governor of Mutsu in 757. Two new fortresses were built to defend against the “barbarians”, although in 774 one of them was destroyed by the Emishi. In addition to the fight against Emishi, Fujiwara no Nakamaro planned to conquer Silla: send there 47 thousand infantrymen and 17,360 sailors on 394 ships. The removal of Nakamaro from power prevented the implementation of this grandiose plan.

The period from 774 to 811 is known in Japanese historiography as the Thirty-Eight Years' War, as the empire sought to subjugate the Emishi. In 776, troops were sent to suppress the Emishi in the village of Siwa (Deva province), but in 777 they were defeated by the “barbarians.” Meanwhile, in 780, the talented leader Korehari no Azamaru stood at the head of the next Emishi uprising, who was able to capture the stronghold of Taga no jo. In 780, Fujiwara no Oguromaro was appointed envoy to pacify the East. Emperor Kammu organized three campaigns against the Emishi (789, 794, 801). In 788, the aristocrat Kino Kosami was appointed the great commander-pacifier of the East. He set out on a campaign to pacify the Emishi, which, however, ended ingloriously. At the Battle of Subuse in 789 with the Emishi warlord Aterui, the Tenno army lost more than a thousand people killed (supposedly 6 thousand soldiers of the empire opposed 1,500 Emishi, who managed to lure the enemies into a trap). The struggle between the empire and the Emishi continued into the Heian era.

Main events

701 - Creation of the legislative code "Taihoryo";
710 - Transfer of the country's capital to Heijō-kyo (modern city of Nara);
712 - Writing the historical chronicle “Kojiki”;
718 - Creation of the legislative code “Yoro Ritsuryo”;
720 – Writing of the historical chronicle “Nihon Shoki”;
743 - Founding of Todai-ji Temple by Emperor Shomu;
759 - Compilation of the poetry collection "Man'yoshu";
784 - Transfer of the capital to Nagaoka-kyo;
788 - Founding of the Enryakuji Monastery on Mount Hiei by the monk Saicho.

Source: Wikipedia

Meiji period (1868-1911).

The Meiji period is named after the motto of the reign of Emperor Mutsuhito - “bright reign”. Unable to resist the growing military-political pressure from the Western powers, Japan was forced to carry out large-scale reforms aimed at creating a modern industrial state. The reforms, which were revolutionary in nature, were clothed in the ideological shell of a return to traditional values, to the legal order of antiquity, that is, the “restoration” of the power of the emperor, which had been relegated to the background under the shoguns.

Rapid industrial development, widespread borrowing of the achievements of Western civilization, which, however, managed to preserve national identity. The beginning of external expansion.

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Shuichi Kato; Don Sanderson (April 15, 2013). A History of Japanese Literature: From Manyoshu to the Present Day
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William George Aston talks about this in his note, see Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to 697 AD.
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Hayato's dance appears several times in the Kojiki, Nihon Shoki and Shoka Nihonga, performed on occasions to honor the court and for the benefit of foreign guests.
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Socio-economic structure

90% of the population of Nara Japan were free peasants. All land was initially declared state property. All fields of the national land fund were divided into those in state ownership and those transferred for private use (award fields of officials, plots of peasants, raised land and others). A regular, once every six years, redistribution of plots provided to peasants was envisaged.

The economy of the Nara period was state-planned [source not specified 101 days]. To increase the efficiency of tax collection, a network of roads was built that led to the capital. At court, copper and silver coins were minted, which had more symbolic than utilitarian meaning. The first Japanese coins appeared in 708. In total, 12 coin issues were carried out between 708 and 958. The money was used to pay salaries of officials and workers. The bulk of the Japanese remained outside the sphere of commodity-money circulation. The economy was subsistence in nature. In the capital, the level of economic activity was the highest, while the regional economies remained at the primitive level of the Kofun period.

In the middle of the 8th century, an important economic institution appeared - the Shoen estates, which, with the decline of the state economy, gradually became the private possessions of aristocrats and temples. Their appearance is associated with the desire of the central government to rationally use the country’s lands. The establishment of the economic system led to self-sufficiency of regional administrations.

To increase income, the state stimulated the development of virgin lands, which, by decree of 723, it promised to give for three generations to private ownership of those who raised them, while creating a new irrigation system. Those who developed virgin lands using old irrigation structures received them for lifelong ownership. However, already in 743 a decree was issued introducing the rule of “eternal private ownership of developed virgin lands”, which abolished the law of 723 “three generations - one life”. This was immediately taken advantage of by noble families and influential Buddhist monasteries, who created a powerful economic base on uncultivated lands. The emergence of the private sector, which the state did not control, weakened the position of the central government. At the same time, the state tried to fight the growth of private estates without much success. In 765, a decree was issued prohibiting the nobility from using forced peasant labor on their private estates. Working for aristocrats, peasants spent less time cultivating their plots, which reduced tax revenues to the treasury. But already in 772 this decree was annulled. The creation of private land ownership was the most important, although not the only factor that led to the transformation of the “ritsuryo kokka”. At the same time, the appearance of the first shōen did not lead to the disorganization of the Japanese state or its collapse.

In general, the basic principles of the Chinese political and socio-economic model have not taken root in Japan. When perceiving Chinese samples, strict selection was carried out. Initially, the Japanese did not accept the Chinese concept of the “mandate of heaven,” which provided for the possibility of changing an unrighteous dynasty. But even many of the selected ideas were rethought or discarded. The strictly centralized state according to the Chinese model underwent profound changes already in the Nara period, and in the Heian era it actually ceased to exist in its previous form. This, however, did not at all mean the disappearance of a single state.