Formation of the Kamakura Shogunate
Turn of the 9th-10th centuries AD In Japan, times are very difficult. Emperors are tonsured monks one after another; in reality, clans armed to the teeth are in power - powerful families that support their own “private armies”, and the confrontation between the two most powerful of them - the Taira and Minamoto clans , in the period 1180-1185 leads Japan to real civil war.
The Minamoto clan succeeded in completely defeating the Taira in 1185 at the Battle of Dannoura (a bay east of Shimonoseki). shogun in 1192 , the Minamoto established their headquarters in the east in the city of Kamakura.
The creation of a residence in Kamakura was caused by Minamoto's desire to weaken the power of the imperial house and the intention to create his own independent government. By the name of the location of the headquarters in Japanese historiography, the period of the Kamakura shogunate . Although Kamakura was the capital of the shogunate, it was located in the backward eastern region, which ultimately predetermined its economic weakness and led to its death. Kyoto continued to be the most important economic center: in the 13th century. there were 44 za craft and trade associations there, while in Kamakura there were only 27. In addition, the Kyoto za were economically stronger than the Kamakura ones.
Battle between the Taira and Minamoto clans (Taira on the right, Minamoto on the left)
How to get to Kamakura from Tokyo
The ancient city is accessible to both Japanese and foreign travelers. You can get here by rail, bus, taxi and rented car. It's easier to get from Tokyo by train. Branch lines of two companies pass through Kamakura: Enoden, JR East. The first deals with the line leading to the Pacific coast, Fujisawa. There are small trains on the branch that look more like trams. The second belongs to the branch connecting the city with the capital and large port of Yokohama. The fastest option is the train from Tokyo. From the center of the capital, the journey takes an hour and costs about 650 rubles. If you take this train in Yokohama, the trip will be reduced to half an hour and will cost 250 rubles. Trains from Shinjuku to Fujisawa are cheaper but slower.
An alternative public transport convenient for tourists is regular bus service. Buses depart from Tokyo Station Yaesu North Exit. The duration of the trip is 40 minutes. Ticket price – up to 400 rubles. An alternative bus service is from Haneda Airport. It is enough to get to the station of the first terminal of the airport and find a bus stop. Ticket price – up to 900 rubles; The duration of the trip is an hour.
For those who love comfort, the best option is to take a taxi. The road will not be cheap (about 16,000 rubles), but you can get from the capital to the historical region in just 46 minutes.
Tourists who avoid public transport and do not want to spend money on taxis can rent a car. The service will cost 500-600 rubles.
The historical region can be reached by rail
Features of the Kamakura shogunate
In the early 80s of the 12th century. The Minamoto sought to cover the entire population of the country with their power, but in conditions of social chaos this was impossible. Therefore, although the court, having lost control over the eastern provinces, was forced to sanction the political power of the samurai class, already in the second half of the 80s the samurai prompted the emperor to again take over the functions of managing the shogun's non-vassals, which was legally formalized in a special decree of 1205, according to to which all appeals from the shogun's non-vassals were to be sent to Kyoto for consideration by the ex-emperor.
In addition, all foreign policy relations were controlled by the Kyoto court, and not by the shogunate. In a word, a rather peculiar policy developed in the country, characterized by dual power, and, due to the nature of both “branches of power,” neither side had the real power of law.
The economic basis of such dual power is shoen , which began to disintegrate and fragment, as the lands of the shogun’s opponents were distributed among his vassals, who turned into small-scale nobles, samurai. However, the shogunate kept a vigilant eye on its vassals and limited the process of their feudalization, seeking to preserve the shōen as the economic basis of its power. Therefore, although the shōen system underwent collapse, individual shōen existed until the 16th century. as a form of land ownership by the court, court aristocracy, church and samurai class.
In the 13th century. The erosion of the main tax unit in the shoen - “nominal owners” - this intermediate social layer, at one pole of which “new names” were formed - small feudal lords and samurai who settled on the land, and at the other - the small peasantry. This marked the development of the process of social demarcation between the classes of peasants and nobles (samurai).
Small peasants, to a greater extent than wealthy ones, needed collective protection of their interests, which led to some strengthening of the rural community, which in the legislation of the early 14th century. was determined as part of four villages. In the previous period, in the village called Shoen, officials were appointed mainly from the center to collect taxes and duties from the peasants.
Such villages essentially broke up into separate isolated farmsteads, which were united only formally during the period of predominant dominance of the “nominal owners.” Of course, where the production process required the collective efforts of a significant number of people (during irrigation, fishing, marine fishing), the social ties of the rural community were stronger.
Attractions in Kamakura
During the bakufu period, rulers developed culture and patronized religion, so many attractions have survived to this day. Of particular interest to tourists are the numerous temples and sanctuaries, as well as the huge statue of Buddha.
Hokokuji Temple
Bamboo (as Hokokuji is called) is a Zen Buddhist temple related to Kenteji Rinzai. Founded in 1334 on the initiative of Ashikaga Ietoki, it was ruled by abbot Tengan Eko, who was trained by the Chinese monk Mugaku Sogen, who came from the great land, who founded Engakuji.
Hokokuji
Hokokuji is famous for the bamboos that grow behind the main building. A walk in these parts refreshes the senses and immerses the traveler in euphoria. A charming path leading to the main gate gives access to a traditional idyllic garden. The history of the temple is tragic and bloody, but now this place is a refuge of peace and beauty.
Economy of Japan during the Kamakura Shogunate
In a rural community of the XIII-XIV centuries. communal lands ( sanya ) were still the property of the feudal lord. Peasants were allowed to mow grass and collect brushwood, but this was not their inviolable right. There were many disputes about the rights to common lands.
There was no self-government in the community of this period. The shogun administrator, the “land chief” (jito), administered court and supervised the fulfillment of duties and the collection of taxes. Prosperous peasants showed some initiative, entering into tax contracts with feudal lords and the administration so that the tax would not be revised annually.
At the beginning of the 14th century. Community solidarity arises in the form of oaths (kishomon) , signed by all members of the community when reaching an agreement on a certain issue.
At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. letters began to circulate - appeals from peasants (hyakusho moshijo) , which the feudal shoguns could no longer ignore. In 1250, the procedure of “communal litigation” was established, according to which complaints were formally encouraged by the shogun. However, the peasants actually could not complain about the lawlessness of the jito, since in order to file a complaint they had to have permission from the jito against whom the complaint was made.
Some strengthening of the rural community contributed to the consolidation of the bulk of the peasants, although the influence of the wealthy village elite in matters of community leadership did not decrease.
On the development of commodity-money relations in the 13th century. evidenced by the 1226 ban on using cloth as money. In 1290, a special embassy was sent to China to purchase copper money in exchange for gold, since only copper coins were in circulation, which were not then produced in Japan.
Wholesale trade appeared along the rivers of the central region of Honshu Island. Initially, it was carried out by Shoen officials, who combined administrative functions with the transportation and storage of grain, but then they began to specialize in the transportation of handicrafts, sometimes over quite long distances. These wholesalers, dealing in large quantities of rice, began making rice liquor and engaging in moneylending.
The development of commodity-money relations entailed a partial replacement of corvée and in-kind tax with money (commutation). This process accelerated in the second half of the 13th century. and meant the emergence of a monetary reform of feudal land rent, which survived until the end of the 16th century. The commutation sharply worsened the financial situation of the bulk of the peasants, who were deprived of the opportunity to sell their products on the market and did not have the money to pay taxes.
The only way out for them was to seek financial help from merchants, moneylenders and rural rich people. The latter, being drawn into commodity-money relations, became significantly richer, and the mass of the poor inevitably fell into servile dependence. Social differentiation of peasants widened the gap between their individual categories.
The emergence of Shoen markets stimulated the development of the monetary form of feudal land rent. The feudal lords considered the Shoen markets as their property. Some of these markets in Central Japan spanned several provinces. Trade in the Shoen market gave the feudal lord an additional source of income and marked the emergence of a new type of landowner who sought to reduce labor rent and increase food rent, and increase income from trade and usury. The social conditions of the Kamakura regime constrained the activities of this category of new feudal lords, and they increasingly advocated its overthrow.
At the end of the XII and especially in the XIII century. rural dzas appeared, marking the penetration of commodity-money relations into the village, drawing rural rich people into the local, local market.
Thus, the development of trade was the economic basis for the aggravation of social and class contradictions.
Founder of the Kamakura shogunate - head of the Minamoto clan
Kotoku-in Temple (Giant Buddha)
The temple belongs to the Jodo school. The main attraction is the Big Buddha. The statue cast in bronze is one of the symbols of the country. It was created in 1252 on the site of a previously existing wooden statue. It is believed that the creation belongs to Oono Goroemon or Taji Hisatomo - the best bronze foundries of that era. The finished work was covered with gilding - its remains are visible only near the ears.
Kotoku-in
The height of the statue is 13.35 m, weight is 93 tons. The object is hollow, so tourists can look inside. Previously, the Buddha's foot was decorated with 32 lotus petals, but now there are only 4 of them and all have been moved relative to their original position. The base of the statue was destroyed during the 1923 earthquake, but was subsequently restored. In the 60s, repair and strengthening work was carried out to prevent damage from possible earthquakes in the future.
Kente-ji Temple
The temple is one of the oldest in the prefecture. The complex is formed by many buildings, extensions, and occupies a huge territory from the hills to the valley. At the main gate, guests are greeted by the national treasure of the state - the Bonse bell. The lecture hall is the largest wooden temple structure in eastern Japan.
Kente-ji is attractive with two viewing platforms. To get to the first one, you climb the hill for about 20 minutes, the second one is located 10 minutes away from the first one.
Engakuji Temple
The temple complex dates back to 1282. An example of Japanese art attracts with its unusual carvings and magnificent choice of colors. Engakuji is the material embodiment of samurai philosophy and life of that period. It is one of the five most important temples in Kamakura. The main relic is the tooth of Buddha. Now Engakuji is the main meditation center.
Engakuji
Tokeji Temple
Tokeji is located next to Engakuji. Previously, the temple was a center of pilgrimage for women in unsuccessful marriages who wanted freedom. Three years of monastic life gave them the right to divorce. Now Tokeji is a historical museum that displays art and the best examples of calligraphy. The temple owns a collection of ancient books.
Daibutsu Walking Course
Daibutsu is a tourist walking route that allows you to explore the west of Kamakura. It winds through hills and forests past Daibutsu and Kotokuin temples, the sanctuary of laundered money Zeniarai Benten. The average duration of a walk along the route is one and a half hours, the distance is 6 km. The end point is Zuchi-ji Zen Temple.
Tenensky walking course
Tenen is a long walking route through the wooded hills of Kamakura. It covers the northern part of the prefecture near the main city. During the walk, tourists get acquainted with temples, ancient burial places, and the natural beauties of the region.
Tenen
Gyonyama Tourism Course
Gyonyama is one of the shortest walking routes in Kamakura. The entire journey takes less than half an hour. The trail leads east from the city, starting at the Yagumo Temple, famous for its ancient burial site. Along the walking route, tourists admire the beautiful view of the city from the high hills.
Enoshima
Enoshima is an island that can be reached via a 600-meter bridge from Katase. Enoshima is small - about 400 km in circumference. It is interesting for its lighthouse, observation deck, and sanctuaries, including one erected in the name of the goddess of happiness. In 1964, the coast was equipped with an Olympic harbor. The island is a popular beach holiday destination for residents of the Japanese capital.
Enoshima
The administrative system of Japan during the Kamakura shogunate
The administrative structure of power of the samurai class arose on the basis of the spread of the practice of managing feudal houses to the entire noble class. The military administration of the shogunate, called the Field Headquarters (Bakufu) , was divided into two main groups: administrative and judicial, consisting of the Administrative Chamber and the Supreme Court of Justice. In addition, there was a special Samurai department.
To carry out administrative and police functions, the shogunate established the institutions of the Land Head (jito) and the Guards and Protectors (shugo) .
Sources date the emergence of jito to 1185. They were appointed from among Minamoto's vassals, but at first not regularly. For several months (from November 1185), jito were sent to 36 western provinces to provide the shogun's troops with food, but already in the next year this function began to fade away. Under the contract agreement with Kamakura jito, full local management rights were granted in exchange for regularly supplied taxes.
After 1221, the jito became the shogun's representatives in the private feudal shoen, where their administrative and police activities duplicated the functions of the managers appointed by the shoen owners. The Jito committed lawlessness, ignored Kamakura court decisions, and forced local residents to sign affidavits favorable to themselves. The jito received fodder lands, but they widely practiced appropriating part of the annual shōen tax.
Where the jito coexisted with local officials, mainly in the west, their income was less than in the east, where they had unlimited governing rights. From the second half of the 13th century. The practice of dividing income between the owners of shoen and jito began. The rights of the latter were strengthened by reducing the real power and income of the shoen owners.
From 1190, Shugo began to be appointed by the shogun in the province as leaders of the police forces to restore order and maintain contact with the shogun's vassals. Possessing armed force, they began to displace the governors and, having appropriated their main functions, became the main military-administrative force in the province, military governors.
The shogun proclaimed himself “Head of Shugo and Jito,” claiming full administrative and police power. However, his orders met with opposition even among the samurai class, not to mention his opponents. The armed suppression of disobedient people was carried out by the “commissioner of coercion” - one of the strongest vassals of the shogun.
A characteristic feature of the Kamakura shogunate was the omnipotence (soryo) of the heads of large family groups. This omnipotence marched through all social strata of that time.
The head of the family was obliged to take care of the preservation of family property, the surname as a symbol of the family, the traditional family profession, and to exercise control over family members. He could deprive those who violated the established order of land. The head of the family performed ancestor worship. In wartime conditions, he commanded his family unit.
During the Kamakura period, the functions of the head of the family could be concentrated in the hands of a woman, which was no longer observed subsequently.
The authority of the head of the family was indisputable; even the shogun did not interfere in his decisions.
In addition to managing family affairs, the patriarch performed social functions and in this regard was subordinate to the shogun, being his direct vassal (gokenin) . Legally, this was determined by a charter, according to which, for the land provided, the vassal was obliged to ensure the payment of taxes and the fulfillment of labor and military duties.
The lands of the shogun's vassals were divided into hereditary (sanctioned by the shogun) and received for merit. The granted lands, paid for in blood, were a source of special pride for the samurai. The last category of land was especially highly valued by them.
Non-vassals of the shogun (higokenin) were placed in a lower social position in relation to the shogun's vassals, since they served other feudal lords who could potentially be carriers of centrifugal tendencies.
As large family groups naturally grew and disintegrated, the shogunate became increasingly interested in increasing the number of its vassals and made seceded younger sons into vassals. This process took place at the beginning of the 14th century. and testified to the loss by the patriarchs of their former omnipotence. Since 1303, the provision of the same grants to the heads of small separated families as to the patriarchs equalized the rights of both.
of rebellious leagues (ikki) from the They consisted of younger sons who were hired out to one or another feudal lord. The success or defeat of the parties in internecine wars for land, for power, and for the sole right of the feudal lord to exploit the peasants often depended on the support of such leagues.
Events
- 1185: The rival Taira clan was defeated at sea at the Battle of Dan-no-Ura by Yoritomo's brother Minamoto no Yoshitsune,[7]
- 1192: The Emperor Go-Toba appoints Yoritomo shogun
(warlord) with residence in Kamakura, creating
the bakufu
system of government - 1199: Minamoto no Yoritomo dies
- 1207: Hōnen and his followers are expelled from Kyoto or executed. This inadvertently extended the Pure Land doctrine to a wider audience.
- 1221: The Kamakura Army defeats the imperial army at the Jōkyū Violation, thereby asserting the superiority of the Kamakura Shogunate (Hōjō Regents) over the emperor
- 1227: The sect of Zen Buddhism is introduced to Japan by the monk Dogen Zenji
- 1232: The Joei Shikimoku
Code of Laws is promulgated to increase control by the Hōjō regents - 1271: Nichiren banished to Sado Island
- 1274 and 1281: The Mongols from Kublai Khan try to invade Japan but are repelled by a typhoon.
- 1293: May 27, a major earthquake and tsunami strikes Sagami Bay and Kamakura, killing 23,034 people.[8] It followed the 1241 and 1257 earthquakes/tsunamis in the same area with a magnitude of 7.0.
- 1333: Nitta Yoshisada conquers and destroys Kamakura during the Siege of Kamakura, end of the Kamakura Shogunate.[9]
Joei Shikimoku - laws for the samurai class during the Kamakura shogunate
The death in 1199 of Minamoto Yoritomo, the founder of the Kamakura shogunate, was used by his father-in-law Hojo Tokimasa for the forced monastic vows of Minamoto's son Yoriie and the actual seizure of power under the guise of a ruler (shikken).
Ex-Emperor Gotoba also took advantage of the death of Minamoto Yoritomo, who, relying on the formation of Western samurai, in particular the Miura group, tried to regain power during the turmoil of 1219-1221. (Shokyu years), but the conspirators were defeated. From this time on, the Hojo began to regularly send two inspectors with detachments to Kyoto, in the Rokuhara region, where the official offices of the regents were located, to supervise the actions of the emperor and his entourage. More than 3 thousand shoen were confiscated from the rebels in favor of the shogun and his supporters.
The stabilization of the position of the eastern samurai as a result of the defeat of the palace opposition was legally secured in 1232 by a Code of Laws of 51 articles (“Joei Shikimoku”). The code was compiled to resolve legal cases of the samurai class. Not officially published, it was rather an order from the authorities for official use and, together with subsequent additions, quite accurately reflected the socio-economic situation of the country in the 13th century.
This legal monument testifies to the presence of a not yet fully developed hereditary fief system, in which land ownership was divided into fief land itself (ryochi, or chigyo) , lands of the Shinto and Buddhist churches (shinryo and butsuryo) , which fell under the concept of fief ownership, and, in addition Moreover, the uninhabited lands of large landowners and the provincial administration. And although uninhabited lands continued to be called “ state field” (koden) , they were no longer the property of the imperial house. There was also a raised new (konden) , which was divided into “named fields” (myoden) - the possessions of individuals who cleared the land for arable land, which received the name of the first uprooter, and forests, pastures, and water lands, which were the property of feudal lords.
The court in Kyoto continued to have its own legislation. Like Kamakura, it provided for the free will of the head of the family in choosing an heir and in dividing property between several heirs. However, Kyoto legislation denied the legality of making changes, while Kamakura legislation recognized the right to revise the will and change the heir (Articles 18 and 26).
If in the early Kamakura period, inheritance of the prerogatives of the head of the family was allowed only after his death, then, according to the law of 1241, it was also allowed during his life: in case of old age, when removed from business (inke), due to illness.
The samurai had the right to transfer the inheritance not only to the eldest son, but he had to receive the suzerain's sanction for this, and the eldest son was guaranteed 1/5 of the inheritance (Article 22, as well as the legislation of the Chosokabe family group, Art. 82).
A characteristic feature of the Kamakura period was the high social status of women, and this brings it closer to the previous, and not to the subsequent time. A widow, subject to chaste behavior, could lead the family, own the land of her late husband, and even receive a charter from the shogun (legislation of 1238 and 1267). The wife's property was confiscated only in the event of a serious crime by the husband, in the event of his participation in a rebellion or robbery, and then the wife was considered as his accomplice. In other cases, her property was not subject to confiscation (Article 11).
At that time, there was no clear distinction between wife and concubine. Both were protected by law; the possession given by a man was not taken away from them if the latter left them without guilt on their part (v. 21).
A woman who had no children could take an adopted son and transfer ownership to him. If a woman was the head of the family, she decided the issue herself; a married woman required her husband’s permission (Article 23).
The widow was ordered to mourn the deceased, her remarriage was considered immoral (Article 24), but in reality it often took place, as confirmed by additions to the Code of 1238, 1239 and 1286, again and again prohibiting remarriage.
If, according to the Taihoryo code (702), a father lost the right to a dowry after his daughter’s marriage, now he could demand its return, which at the same time meant the dissolution of the marriage. Along with the dowry, the married daughter also returned to the parental home (v. 17).
With the introduction of the Hojo Code, Yasutoki established the practice of a vassal's oath of allegiance to his overlord. The person taking the oath pricked his finger, moistened the seal, which at that time replaced the signature, with blood, and applied it to his oath.
But even oaths sealed in blood were not able to prevent the growth of social conflicts caused by the deepening contradiction between the level of development of the productive forces and the instability of dual power. In order to prevent conflicts, in 1238 a special guard was created in Kyoto to maintain order (kagariya shugonin).
Despite the defeat in the Shokyu Troubles (1219–1221), the court and its entourage still posed a serious threat to the dominance of the samurai class. To weaken their opponents, in 1252, by order of Hojo, the Fujiwara house was divided into 5 branches, which were alternately assigned regency-chancellor court titles.
Chronologically coinciding with the division of the Fujiwara house is the division of the imperial house into two branches: Northern and Southern. In 1259, Emperor Gofukakusa retired to the Jimyoin Monastery, and in 1276, Emperor Kameyama, having left the world, settled in the Buddhist temple of the Shingon sect - Daikakuji. Thus, the Northern branch (Jimyointo) and the Southern branch (Daikakujito) arose in the imperial house. As a result of the mediation of the Kamakura shogunate, an agreement was reached on alternating succession to the throne between these two lines.
Battle of the amphibious assault of the Mongols and Japanese samurai on the coast of Japan
During the Kamakura period (1192-1333), power passed from the aristocrats to warriors - samurai (bushi). In art they begin to appreciate the beauty of the mysterious - yugen. If mono no aware is the charm of things that, with their attractiveness, awaken pleasant sadness, then the beauty of yugen can only be felt in a special state of mind. This is the beauty of the invisible, secret, hidden from view, which takes your breath away. Theater theorist No Zeami (1363-1443) said: “There is something hidden in everything, it is beautiful.”
What are the reasons for the change in aesthetic ideal? Perhaps in the instability of power, which seemed unshakable, in the drama of the 12th century, at the end of which one clan, the Taira, was overthrown by another clan, the Minamoto. In 1192, Minamoto Yeritomo was declared the supreme ruler of Japan. The second estate, the bushi, came to power, whose rule lasted until the mid-19th century. The emperor and court remained in the old capital of Heian (Kyoto), but the cultural center moved to the periphery, to Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism, with its idea of the fragility of earthly existence, was confirmed in life. The enthusiasm of Shinto was replaced by a Buddhist tendency towards contemplation, the search for ways to overcome existence, to achieve complete tranquility - nirvana.
Since we have combined the two periods of Kamakura and Muromachi, this section will examine the features of Japanese culture characteristic of both of these periods, i.e. from 1185 to 1568 Let's try to trace how the yugen style of the Kamakura period was transformed into wabi-sabi of the Muromachi period, how these aesthetic categories manifested themselves in the art of theater, the work of Basho, the ritual of the tea ceremony, poetry, samurai culture and much more...
Poetry anthology "Shinkokinshu"
At the beginning of the Kamakura period, another anthology appeared that surpassed the Heian one in skill - Shinkokinshu (New Kokinshu (1205)). Sadaie was the main compiler of the great anthology. The authors of the anthology saw the meaning of poetry in revealing yugen, the beauty of silence, peace, detachment from the world, from the “I”, burdened with worries, merging with the cosmic “I”.
In "Shinkokinshu" many poems are built on the principle of "honkadori": the poem quotes a line from the poems of another poet, contemporary or predecessor. Japanese poetry has a huge memory, a sense of its continuity. By quoting the line, the poet seems to join the heartfelt feelings of his brother.
Poets expressed the spirit of yugen with the help of yojo (“super-feeling” Wink. As Fujiwara Teika said: “Without yojo there is no poetry.” This difficult-to-translate word is usually interpreted as “emotional response,” “after-feeling, hint, understatement, but all these are separate aspects of yojo. This technique can be compared to the state of magokoro (true heart), the absolute fullness of the heart, which is identical to Emptiness. In this case, words are unnecessary, communication occurs at the level of consonant qi, or, as the Zen masters say, “from heart to heart.” When the soul is enlightened, there is no need for words. Zeami said that the artist is able to convey all the colors and moods of nature, forcing his spirit to become colorless and impervious. His spirit, having turned into nothing, will become capable of embracing all the phenomena of the universe, for then his creative power will become equal to the energy of the universe.
Already the 11th century poet Fujiwara Kinto, discussing the harmony of “heart” and “word”, spoke of yojo as “fullness of the heart” (amari no kokoro). If Nothingness was accepted as a truly existing thing, then, naturally, the basic law of poetry becomes yojo, hint, understatement. According to D.T. Suzuki, the secret of Japanese art lies in the hint. Beauty is revealed to those who complete the unfinished in their imagination.
Yojo involves special technical techniques, the technique of “kugiri” - a pause (lit. “breaking a phrase” to excite the imagination), caesura, which breaks the tanka into two stanzas (a tercet and a couplet), or the technique of taigendome - ending the tanka with an inconjugated part of speech so that continue its sound in the reader’s soul. These techniques were used especially often in the Shinkokinshu anthology.
The statement of the philologist and poetry theorist Fujiwara Sadaie: “The words must be old, but let the heart be new,” gives a lot for understanding the poetry of that era. Sadaie's own poems are marked by exquisite beauty:
How I once caressed the black hair of my beloved! Each, every strand On my lonely bed I go over it in my memory.
The poem is structured in such a way that the memory motif makes it endless...
“In the style of Yugen”
The term Yugen, in contrast to Avare, is of Chinese origin. Yugen comes from yu - foggy, difficult to distinguish; gen - dark, deep. In Japan, the word yugen appears as an independent aesthetic category only in the Heian period, despite its earlier mention in the preface to the Chinese version of Kokinshu.
In the Kamakura era, yugen expresses the impressions and feelings experienced by a person who contemplates the moonlight streaming through the haze of a passing cloud, or when he admires the whirling snowflakes sparkling like silver. Yugen contains something new in this image: a direct indication of involvement in light and sparkle, but a cold, detached light - this is the coolness of Buddhism. Poems that painted such pictures were called “yugen style.” They are characterized by being permeated with sadness.
One of the most accurate definitions of yugen can be recognized by Tanka Fujiwara Toshinari, who created his doctrine of yugen in poetry:
In the twilight of the evening, an autumn whirlwind over the fields pierces the soul... A quail's complaint! Village of Deep Grass.
The entire landscape of the poem creates a feeling of frightening and hopeless mystery. But yugen has many shades. The result of the perception of yugen should be the highest harmonious balance with the world.
The poet Fujiwara Shunzei (1114-1204) called yugen a reincarnation of mono no aware, a new expression of unchanging beauty (bi). Yugen is a new facet of that polyhedron that rotates with time; at the level of forms, only one side of it is revealed each time. In a state of peace, absolute being, all its sides are revealed. Hence the desire to experience the “beauty of Nothingness.”
Yugen is a feeling of the fragility of existing things, but poets loved the state of “wandering in uncertainty” (tadayou).
If avare is the bright yang, then yugen is the impenetrable yin... Noh Theater
Having pushed aside the courtiers, the military aristocracy contributed to the development of new forms of theatrical art. One of the postulates says: “He who entertains brings peace to the earth, he who rules brings order.” The religious-mystical, feudal-monarchical romanticism of the Noh theater fully corresponded to her tastes and requirements. The art of Noh is based on the aesthetics of Yugen. But at the end of the Kamakura era, yugen increasingly loses the spirit of sadness and acquires the meaning of brilliance. It was in the image of lush beauty that the concept of yugen came to Noh theater.
Zeami said that without yugen there is no No. He made one feel the beauty of yugen through the language of the image: “a swan with a flower in its beak”, “the beauty of a withered flower”, conducive to thoughtfulness. “It’s like spending all day in the mountains; as if he had entered a spacious forest and forgot about the way home; as if you were admiring the sea paths in the distance, at the boats hiding behind the islands... As if you were following the flight of wild geese disappearing in the distance among the heavenly clouds...”
Noh performances take place on square stages constructed from unpainted hinoki wood. Above the stage, supported by four pillars, rises a roof, similar in design to the roofs of Shinto shrines. The four pillars supporting the roof above the stage have their own names and functions in the performance. Near the rear left pillar (site-basira) they stop when they enter the stage, and the main characters of Noh plays begin the action from it. The front left pillar (metsuke-basira) serves as a guide for masked actors who cannot clearly see the stage boundary. The right front pillar is called waki-basira because the secondary actor (waki) goes to it when his functions end. Near the right rear pillar (fuebashira) there is a musician with a flute.
The stage is open on three sides, the fourth side is a backdrop wall, on a golden background depicting a green spreading stylized pine tree (a symbol of longevity and a benevolent greeting to the audience). The orchestra in the Noh theater consists of four musicians (hayashikata), who are arranged in a single row along the backdrop. Along with the orchestra, at the back wall on the left, sits a koken - a person who helps the actors on stage. He is conventionally considered invisible and can, during the action, adjust the actor’s costume, wig or mask, or give him any props.
Another interesting detail in the design of the No stage is hidden from view. Under the stage, original resonators are constructed: in several dug holes, special pots (about a meter high and about the same diameter) are suspended on copper wire so that they do not touch the ground. They give a special ringing sound to stomping, which is one of the most common elements in Noh dance technique.
The plays of the Noh theater, yokyoku (“musical piece for singing” Wink rhythmically organized what was already known. “Yokyoku texts are a motley fabric woven from phrases, passages, quotes borrowed from everywhere, taken very often in an almost unchanged form, from various, works well known to the reading public of those times. And yet, yokyoku is a completely original work,” notes N.I. Conrad, “They shine with their originality, perhaps to a greater extent than much else in Japan." yokyoku organically combined ancient poetry and prose, music and dance, personifying the principle of “unity of different things.” It is no coincidence that the yokyoku method was called “tsugihagi” - “stringing one thing on top of another”, and the style - “tsuzure no spouts” - “brocade from scraps”. But the traditional method of achieving a single thing through the balance of different things was implemented: music, gestures, plasticity, seasons - that state of harmony (wa), which, from the Japanese point of view, is initially inherent in the world, which is difficult to understand without taking into account the universality of yin-yang.
In the treatise “On the Continuity of the Flower” (“Kadensho” Wink Zeami says that even in ancient times they knew that the secret of mastery in any matter depends on the correct yin-yang ratio. During the daytime performance, the audience is in a yang (lively) mood, play it is necessary in the yin style (subdued). The success of the performance depends on the ability to balance the mood. In the evening, darkness evokes sadness - yin, which means you need to play lively so that the spirit of yang penetrates the heart, then the dark mood will be balanced with a light one. When on stage and in the audience the same thing same mood, yin or yang, there will be no success. In art But the text and manner of performance, movement and music, the style of playing and the nature of the terrain, the rhythm and season must be in tune. If the role requires energetic gestures, they must be balanced by inner softness. A skilled actor, following the rules of singing, dancing, gestures, in an effort to convey the invisible, each time gives these gestures a new coloring (kyoku), which depends on skill and intuition.The ten styles of yokyoku, each of which has its own soul, must also be in harmony. According to the principle of “unity of different things”, five types of plays are united: “kami no mono” - “about deities”, “shura no mono” - “about the spirit of a warrior”, “katsura-mono” - plays about unhappy love, “zatsu- no mono” - “plays about different things”, “kiri no mono” - “the final play”. Each one tunes the viewer in its own way, so that by the end of the performance he experiences all emotional states. Natural harmony underlies the rhythmic organization of No or the law of jo-ha-kyu alternation. Jo is a slow entry, ha is a sharp turn, kyu is a rapid movement. The actor’s play, individual scenes and the performance as a whole are subject to this principle: the first play is performed in the jo rhythm, the three subsequent ones in ri - in the kyu rhythm. Zeami says that everything has the levels of jo-ha-kyu, and No follows this. Obeying the world rhythm, which is not subject to the law of extinction, But preserves itself. In the treatise “The Mirror of a Flower,” Zeami notes that life has a limit, but No has none. Zeami’s frequent appeal to the image of a “flower” attracts attention. One might say that this is one of the central concepts of his theory. With the word “flower” he denoted the allegorical beauty inherent in all art. Flowers do not bloom all the time, they bloom at certain times of the year, and it seems surprising, extraordinary, it delights. The art of Noh also seems unusual. If an actor knows many roles, he can choose the one that suits the time and the mood of the viewer. This shows the resemblance to a flower that blooms at a certain time. Each actor should have his own flower corresponding to his skill. The flower of acting, like the flower of poetry, grows from the heart (kokoro). Success will accompany the performance when “a flower, amazing and unusual, has one heart.”
The flower personifies the unity of the unchanging and the changeable in art: on the one hand, it continues the life of the seed, on the other, it blooms in a new way every time. Zeami said that when flowers fall, they bloom again. And this is their extraordinary nature. Zeami refers to the nature of changeable (ryukosei). What’s remarkable is that, when flowers fall, they turn into other things. Yugen is the flower that represents this change.
After the transition of consciousness from visible beauty, the “charm of things” to the beauty of the invisible - “yugen”, makoto began to be understood as the truth of non-existence, which is associated with conventional forms, with the symbolism of No.
One and the same object on stage could mean a variety of phenomena and movements of the soul. The fan in the actor’s hands represents: a brush, a sword, a wine cup, rain, autumn leaves, a hurricane, a river, the rising sun, anger, rage, peace. The subject is multifaceted and depends on alternating moments, in each of which the Tao is manifested; in itself it is not significant, but with its help the truth is extracted from oblivion. It is not surprising that given the feeling of the universal interconnectedness of things, Noh theater, like other forms of art, is intended to maintain order in the world and perform a world-building function. The purpose of No is to soften the hearts of people, to act on the feelings of higher and lower; become the basis of longevity and happiness; become the path to a wonderful and long life. Sabi in Basho's haiku
No previous mood is required to embody the beauty of sabi. In order to see its non-random essence in the most inconspicuous object, you only need to be able to forget yourself.
Here a leaf has fallen, Here another leaf is flying in an icy whirlwind.
It is no coincidence that Basho’s style is called “authentic” (shofu).
This is what Hattori Doho, a student of Basho, said about the famous poem
Old pond! The frog jumped. splash of water
“A frog that lives in water jumped into an old pond. There was a splash of water. A haikai sounded in the croaking of a frog that jumped from a grassy bank. Everything you see and hear, everything you feel is haikai. This is the truth of art."
When Basho was studying Zen with Master Butcho, he one day asked him: “What have you been doing these days?” Basho replied: “The rain has stopped, the moss is so green.” Butte: “Which came first, the Buddha or the green moss?” Basho: “Did you hear? The frog jumped into the water."
The student, not hearing the teacher, answers inappropriately, but freeing his mind, does what the teacher wants from him.
We can consider that from this moment a new era in haiku began. Before Basho, haiku were treated as a game, they were not connected with life. Basho, whom the master asked about the true nature of things that existed before the world of phenomena, saw a frog jumping into an old pond, and this sound gave birth to silence... The poet suddenly discovered the source of life, and he began to follow every movement of his thought, as she came into contact with the constantly changing world of phenomena. Basho was a poet of eternal loneliness.
Haiku is not determined by form. Although there are a number of rules, for example, alternating words of 5-7-5 syllables, the presence of a seasonal word. It is determined by the phenomenon itself and the internal mood of the one who contemplates this phenomenon. It reflects him directly and accurately; nothing stands between the poet and nature, which has found its expression. Basho said that you need to learn pine from pine, bamboo from bamboo, to comprehend the subject by delving into it. That is, bring your mind into line with emptiness, thus turning into the object itself. And only under this condition will a poem be born.
The poet focuses on the internal, delves into the individual until the unity is revealed, penetrating into the individual, he comprehends the nature of the universal. At the moment of insight, the dependence of things on each other ceases at the level of true, from the point of view of Buddhism, reality. Since everything is in motion, you need to trust it so as not to come into conflict with it. Basho said that the haikai should not stop for a moment. When looking at creativity as a breakthrough into Nothing, art was understood as a continuation of life, and the artist as one who makes one feel the connection of everything with everything. At the same time, sabi is life itself. Basho said that sabi is the coloring of a poem; it is not at all necessary to give a scene of loneliness. If a person, preparing for war, puts on heavy armor or, going to a party, dresses up in bright clothes, and this person is not young, then there is sabi in this. Basho’s techniques are simple, the strength of his poetry is in balance, in the “unity of different things”: color, smell, sound. It is thanks to this that haiku is likened to life itself.
Sabi allowed us to penetrate deeper into makoto - the truth of things. Basho discovered the essence of nature in sabi. He has advanced further than others in understanding Makoto. Basho found sabi in the unity of the unchangeable (fueki) and the changeable (rikyu). Basho understood sabi as the highest law of nature, human life and art.
Sabi is an echo of the eternal, unchangeable in the transitory, changeable, a feeling of the fragility and fleetingness of life, at the same time its infinity.
Hence the touch of sadness in the verses marked with sabi, but it is a quiet, peaceful sadness. Tea ceremony
In the art of the 15th-16th centuries, the style of wabi - peace, silence, modesty - was something that was opposite to yugen. Wabi is a deserted shore on which stands a lonely fisherman's hut, small buds breaking through the thickness of the snow in a mountain village. Wabi is the beauty of simplicity, the beauty that comes from the life force hidden behind the rough surface. It is colorless, but behind the veil of colorlessness there is a secret invisible force. Wabi is the ability to be yourself, to follow the natural path.
During the period of the return of the inclination to simplicity and rigor, the tradition of the tea ceremony developed, which had its own philosophy, its own aesthetic requirements, and traditions. The relationship between man, nature and art found full expression in it.
The tea ceremony master Sokei (16th century) said that the original purpose of wabi is to make one feel the purity and uncontamination of the Buddha’s abode. That is why the owner and guests, as soon as they enter the modest tea room, cleanse themselves of earthly dust and conduct a conversation with their hearts. Therefore, there is no need to worry about rules and manners. Just light a fire, boil water and drink tea. This will be the tea ceremony.
As the legend goes, one day, while sitting in meditation, Bodhidharma felt that his eyes were closing and he was falling asleep. Then, angry with himself, he tore out his eyelids and threw them to the ground. An unusual bush with succulent leaves grew at this place. Later, Bodhidharma's disciples began to brew these leaves with hot water to maintain vigor. This is how tea appeared...
As a secular event, the tea ceremony appeared in the 15th century, then at the end of the 15th century it was reorganized by the famous “chajin” (tea master) monk Sen no Rikyu. There was the concept of “chado” (the way of tea) - the path of purity and refinement, achieving harmonious unity with the outside world through the ritual of the tea ceremony.
The tea ceremony took place in a small tea house located in the depths of the garden, which was an artistic phenomenon and was created according to special laws. A path of irregularly shaped stones placed among mosses led to a source of water, where hand washing was performed, then, after choosing the main guest, they entered through a very low door into the tea house. There should be no more than five guests; like-minded people were invited. Poetry, philosophical and aesthetic problems were discussed. The very situation inside the tea house, where twilight reigned, was conducive to such a conversation. Three topics - money, illness, politics - were taboo. Yasunari Kawabata said well about the tea ceremony: “If “wabi-sabi”, so highly valued in the Way of Tea, which prescribes “harmony, respect, purity and tranquility,” personifies the wealth of the soul, then a tiny, extremely simple tea room embodies vastness space, the infinity of beauty... A meeting over tea is the same meeting of feelings.”
Utensils used in preparing tea, the room in which the ceremony takes place, a specially selected and placed in a vase composition of two or three branches, a silk scroll hanging above it on the wall with a painting or a calligraphic inscription corresponding to the occasion, the surrounding landscape, and finally, clothing , the behavior of the participants and the content of their leisurely conversations - everything should be in perfect harmony, the harmony of artlessness, restraint, simplicity, helping a person get closer to the surrounding nature, dissolving in it. Nothing should interfere with creating a mood of quiet contemplation or interfere with reflection.
The presence of “pure”, and therefore, from the Japanese point of view, useless beauty is excluded. The essence of the tea ceremony is that it expresses the aesthetics of real life, where utility is the first principle of beauty. In total, for the tea ceremony there should be twenty-four necessary items - “chaki”, among them a tea bowl “chawan”, “mizusashi” - a vessel for cold water, boxes for tea “kogo”, a bronze cauldron, a wooden ladle made of bamboo and others. All items for the tea ceremony, except for their immediate purpose, were objects of contemplation.
Works of Japanese applied art have long emphasized the direct practical value of the thing itself. That is why connoisseurs of the tea ceremony, known for their exquisite taste, abandon Chinese porcelain and turn to folk art. The thick walls of the bowl retain heat well. The rough, unglazed bottom of the bowl is placed on the palm, recalling the nature of the material - the clay from which it is made. Each bowl is unique, not repeated either in shape or decoration. The ceramics are made specifically without the help of a potter's wheel - hand sculpting helps to better understand the thoughts and aspirations of the author, embodied in the creation of this work of art.
In ceramics for the tea ceremony, one of the main qualities of Japanese applied art was most reflected - wabi-sabi (the beauty of the simple, ordinary).
Japanese masters preferred clear, calm forms, without pretentiousness or artificiality. The decor on vases, bowls, bottles also corresponds to the nature of the form... Peculiarities of national suicide
I would like to touch upon the aesthetic side of the samurai’s attitude to death, which has been repeatedly sung in literature and repeatedly confirmed by historical examples. Life was seen as a link in a chain of rebirths. The intrinsic value of earthly life for a Buddhist was small. The Buddhist thesis about the impermanence of all things underlies the entire Japanese culture.
What can your body be compared to, man? Life is illusory, like dew on the grass, like the flickering of lightning.
This poem by the Zen master Rohan reflects a universal truth that does not require any confirmation. This idea of death was inherent in samurai. They saw their destiny in being “like falling cherry blossom petals” and dying in battle, “like jasper breaking on a cliff.” Over time, death in the name of duty began to be perceived in the samurai environment as a rather difficult, but not devoid of aesthetic pleasure, stage of self-improvement. They talked a lot and deeply about death, they admired death, they strived for a beautiful death. One of the samurai, who fell at the hands of an assassin, left the following lines:
Neither heaven nor hell can trouble me anymore, and in the moonlight I stand unshakable - not a cloud on my soul...
In the samurai environment, the ability to abstract from the bustle of the world, from the prose of life, and from the atrocities of wartime was highly valued. From an early age, the ability to see “eternity in a flower’s cup” was nurtured in boys and girls. A way of life in which a person can enjoy the beauty of the landscape even on the verge between life and death was called furyu, which means “wind and stream.” Such a worldview made it possible to invariably perceive life as “wind and flow” in all its ephemeral fullness. The most perfect embodiment of this philosophy was the widespread custom among samurai of composing a “farewell” poem before death (most often in the genre of landscape lyrics).
Let us cite as an example a specific incident that occurred relatively recently, emphasizing the importance of the poetic tradition.
On March 17, 1945, Lieutenant General Kuribayashi Tadamichi, commander of the Japanese forces at Iwo Jima, radioed three tanks to General Headquarters before rushing to attack the enemy with his remaining eight hundred soldiers. One of them:
The enemy is not defeated, I will not die in battle, I will be born seven more times to pick up the halberd!
The words express the hope of being reborn seven times in order to take revenge.
Let us remember the Japanese customs directly related to death: decapitation, ripping open the abdomen, shinju.
The Japanese custom of cutting off the head of an enemy warrior comes from the Age of Wars in Ancient China, where a warrior received a promotion by one rank if he obtained the head of a noble enemy in battle. The expression shukyu o ageru - “took the head and got promoted” - comes from there.
The origins of the belly-cutting ritual remain unclear. The earliest surviving document describing belly-ripping attributes it to a female deity: the goddess Omi, pursuing her husband, reached a place later called Harasaki ("Belly-Ripping" Wink), but, inflamed with anger and malice, cut her own belly with a sword and threw herself into the swamp.
By the 11th century. the custom had already entered into practice and was supposed to serve as a way of showing courage, or avoiding dishonor at the hands of enemies. In the XIV century. the ritual spread widely. Suicide began to be viewed as a manifestation of the highest heroism, a demonstration of strength and self-control. This attitude towards life and death is clearly shown in the classic Japanese epic. The Tale of the Great Peace describes 2,640 cases of such suicides. The stomach was also ripped open to follow the master after his death. In a number of cases, death for one’s master took the form of mass suicide: “The prince asked: “How should one kill oneself?” Yoshiaki, holding back the gushing tears, said: “That’s it...”. And, without finishing speaking, he pulled out the sword, turned it towards himself, plunged it into his left side and cut several ribs towards his right side. Then he took out his sword, laid it in front of the prince, fell on his face and died. The prince immediately took the sword and looked at it. Since there was blood on the hilt, the prince wrapped it with the sleeve of his robe, exposed his snow-like body and, plunging the sword near his heart, fell on the same headboard as Yoshiaki.
All those who were with the prince exclaimed: “We, too, follow the prince!” They said a prayer to the Buddhas with one voice, and everyone immediately committed hara-kiri. Seeing this, the warriors, numbering more than three hundred, who were standing in the courtyard, began to pierce each other with swords and fell to the ground with their chests” (“Taiheiki” 117, p. 212)
In the 17th century Under Tokugawa, samurai who committed a shameful act began to be sentenced to have their bellies ripped open. The harakiri procedure (the Japanese themselves tend to use the word “seppuku” or “kappuku” Wink, which was used as punishment, was arranged especially magnificently. The act of harakiri was usually performed in the master’s house at night or in the evening. The yard was sprinkled with coarse sand, and the place of the act itself was covered with thin mats, which were covered with white linen; a red woolen blanket was laid on top.
Ripping open the abdomen does not lead to immediate death; death can be painful, messy and long. At one time there was a rule that prescribed opening the abdomen first horizontally, then vertically, followed by a fatal blow - in the back or neck. According to legend, General Nogi Maresuke (1849-1912), who committed suicide on the day of the funeral of Emperor Meiji (1852-1912), performed exactly this procedure.
Going through all three stages requires incredible fortitude. This explains the frequent presence of an assistant, kaishaku or kaishakunin, who had to cut off the head at one of two moments.
In the first case, the kaishaku cut off his head at the moment when the condemned samurai, already preparing for death, bent over a short sword or dagger lying in front of him on a ceremonial tray. Here there was no opening of the abdomen at all. During the Tokugawa period, this method became widespread in its most stylized form, and instead of a sword, a fan was often placed on the tray.
In another case, the kaishaku waited until the person he was supposed to help die passed the first or second stage himself. This was the path chosen by a samurai named Taki Zenzaburo on March 2, 1868. His suicide is described in detail by Sir Ernest Mason Satow (1843-1929), secretary of the British Legation in Edo.
Typically, suicide in Japan is committed alone, but unlike other countries, group suicides often occur here.
So, in the mid-50s, more than 1,200 such cases were recorded annually. Quite a lot of group suicides are still happening. Among them, lovers invariably take first place. Such suicides are called shinju (suicide by conspiracy) or joshi (romantic suicide) in Japan; Such suicides first began to be practiced on the eve of the Edo period. They are close in spirit to various types of solemn blood oaths: tearing out nails, piercing an arm or leg with a dagger, cutting off a finger, etc. Suicides of lovers were committed by opening veins, cutting throats, hanging... Around the middle of the 17th century. these types of suicides were banned, but they have not disappeared to this day... * * *
with comments, questions and additions, you are welcome to my LJ
The threat of Mongol invasion and the Kamakura shogunate
The threat of the Mongol invasion, which arose in the second half of the 13th century, aggravated the internal political situation.
In 1266, Kublai Khan sent envoys demanding recognition of his power over Japan. This arrogant demand was left unanswered, and the Japanese refused subsequent similar claims.
In November 1274, a Mongol fleet approached the western shores of Japan, capturing the islands of Tsushima and Iki, then troops began landing in the northwest of Kyushu in the province of Chikuzen (modern Fukuoka Prefecture). The samurai units fought fierce battles, but they were not prepared to repel the onslaught of such a powerful enemy. Help came from unexpected places - a typhoon arrived and destroyed more than 200 enemy ships and thwarted the Mongol invasion.
In June-August 1281, a new campaign was undertaken to the shores of Japan: two armadas with a total number of 3,500 ships and boats approached the Japanese shores - one from the Korean Peninsula, and the other from China. By this time, the coast was already fortified, combat ships were also prepared, but a typhoon swept away the enemy fleet, and the remaining ships were sunk by the Japanese. Since then, the typhoon began to be called “Divine Wind” ( kamikaze ) - a term that during the Second World War was used to refer to suicide bombers sent to bomb or sink enemy ships.
In the fight against the Mongols, the Japanese samurai squads encountered new tactics - the interaction of different units, with outflanking and encircling maneuvers, actions from the flanks, and with firearms, which destroyed most of the coastal fortifications. This contributed to the development of a new military organization, tactics of maneuverable combat, as well as lightening military equipment and was subsequently used by the feudal lords in their ongoing internecine wars.
The threat of the Mongol invasion benefited the southwestern feudal lords, who, at the expense of the treasury, strengthened their own possessions, as well as trade and usury capital, which financed military preparations. However, the socio-economic consequence of the Mongol invasion was a general deterioration in the position of the samurai as a result of mobilization, which caused a massive sale and mortgage of land.
The weakening of the shogun's vassals affected the position of the shogun's government, which lost its previous positions. This led to an intensification of the struggle within the samurai class. Hojo's rule took on a despotic character. The despotism of Hojo, which intensified in the 80s of the 13th century, was manifested in the seizure of the main positions in the government by the Hojo house, in the discussion of the main issues of government at narrow meetings of their family members. Hojo sought to prevent the decline of the samurai class and its enslavement by trade and usurious capital.
To this end, the first, but by no means the last law, aimed at preserving the land fund of the samurai, was the decree of 1297 (Tokuseiryo), which annulled transactions of the shogun's vassals on the sale, mortgage of land, and samurai debt to moneylenders. However, this legislation was not able to significantly weaken the position of trade and usurious capital in the conditions of the development of commodity-money relations.
The Kamakura shogunate hindered the activities of feudal lords associated with the market, craftsmen and merchants and the wealthy peasantry, and therefore they all began to fight this regime. Opponents of the shogunate from the samurai class were called in official documents “bad troops” (akuto). In reality these were progressive forces. Their emergence was especially characteristic of the period of aggravation of social contradictions at the end of the 13th-14th centuries.
Notes
- ^ a b
Dobbins, James S. (1998).
"Introducing Kamakura Buddhism". In Payne, Richard K. (ed.). A New Vision of Kamakura Buddhism
. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824820789. - ^ a b c d f g gram hour i j
Osumi, Kazuo;
Dobbins, James S. (1999). "Buddhism in the Kamakura Period". In Hall, John Whitney (ed.). The Cambridge History of Japan
. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge. ISBN 9780521223546. - Kitagawa, Joseph M. (2010). Religion in Japanese History
. Columbia University Press. paragraph 65. ISBN 9780231515092. - ^ a b c
Payne, Richard K. (1998).
New vision of Buddhism "Kamakura"
. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. paragraph 9. ISBN 0-8248-2078-9. - Anesaki, Masaharu (1930). History of Japanese Religion
. London: Trench, Trubner and Company. paragraph 167. - Hane, Mikiso (2015). Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey
. Perez, Louis (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. paragraph 95. ISBN 9780813349701. OCLC 895428280. - Varley, P. (1994) p. 82.
- Query NOAA Earthquake Database
- McCullough, Helen Craig (1959): pp. 285–311.
End of the Kamakura Shogunate
Anti-shogun forces on the island of Kyushu sought to throw off the hated yoke of the House of Hojo, which had strengthened after the Mongol invasion.
In Central Japan, in and around the Kinai region, the opposition was primarily against the shōen owners, since it consisted of local feudal lords who were administrative officials in the shōen and sought to use their official position to appropriate crops and seize land from the shōen feudal lords. The monks of Buddhist temples also joined them. They, as feudal owners, were burdened by the shogun administrators in their domains and advocated their abolition.
Peasants fought against the shogunate both in samurai squads and independently, defending their interests through collective efforts in military detachments of rural communities. The peasants fought against the lawlessness of the Shoen and central administrations, against corvee labor and labor rent.
The heterogeneity of opposition forces necessitated their consolidation. At that time, it could only be carried out on a religious basis, with the help of the authority of the emperor. Using his religious influence, Emperor Godaigo (representative of the Southern Court), who inherited the throne in 1318, plotted to return political power to the imperial house. Relying on the samurai of the central region and on some shogunal vassals of the eastern provinces, on the military strength of a number of Buddhist monasteries, Godaigo in 1324 began to attract his supporters to Kyoto, but the plot was discovered, the leaders of the samurai groups committed suicide.
In March 1332, for a new attempt to seize power, Godaigo was deposed and exiled to Oki Island, from where he fled in February of the following year and openly joined the anti-Kamakura forces.
The influential southwestern feudal lord Ashikaga Takauji captured Kyoto in early May 1333, and at that time the eastern feudal lord Nitta Yoshisada invaded Kamakura and completely exterminated all Hojo.
The united army of the feudal lords of the island of Kyushu overthrew the shogunal inspector of the local military administration, and almost simultaneously the shogunal administration in the remaining provinces was removed from power.
The Kamakura shogunate was overthrown. Now the struggle began among the winners: the Ashikaga and Nitta clans. They represented two types of economic regions: advanced western and backward eastern. If the west was dominated by flooded rice fields, there were good water transport arteries, developed crafts and thriving trade, then in the east there was desolation, many lands were abandoned or not cultivated at all, the transport system was in a deplorable state, there were no conditions for the widespread development of crafts and trade . Economically, Ashikaga's victory was a foregone conclusion.
Reminder for tourists
Kamakura is a great destination for a trip, whether for one day, a week or even a month. If time is limited, the optimal route is to cover the forest, which contains several Buddhist temples. To get around the city conveniently, you can rent a bicycle. The rental office is located next to the train station exit. Price per day – 1,300 rubles.
There are several convenient hotels in the city. Kamakura-Hase Youth Hostel is located near Hase Station. The cost of living is low (less than 300 rubles per night), but reviews confirm the impeccable order in the hostel. For lovers of a high level of comfort, Fresa Inn opens its doors. The hotel is located near Ofuna station. The price of one night is 5,300 rubles.
The city is convenient for tourists
Catering establishments in Kamakura include small cafeterias near the station specializing in national cuisine, chain restaurants (including international chains), as well as luxury restaurants decorated in a traditional style. In summer there are bars on the beach. In reviews, tourists especially note Saryo Inoue. The cafe opens in the morning and is open until 6 am. The menu consists of traditional dishes. The calling card of the place is the terrace with a magnificent view.
Guests of Kamakura are strongly advised to try the traditional soft-serve purple potato ice cream. This dish is the calling card of the city. The second regional edible specialty is o-senbei rice cookies. It is sold in a store in Komati. The price per piece is 150 rubles.
“Restoration of the monarchy” in Japanese and the formation of the Muromachi shogunate
After the overthrow of the Kamakura shogunate in June 1333, ex-Emperor Godaigo returned to Kyoto, deposed Emperor Kogen, who had been enthroned in 1332, and restored his power: the Kemmu government (January 1334-February 1336). The political formula of the new regime is proclaimed: “Unification of the court aristocrats and samurai,” but in reality it was an attempt to restore the political power of the imperial house.
Godaigo inherited a huge commendation-type shoen, part of whose lands he granted to a Buddhist temple; distributed large land holdings to the courtiers, thereby stimulating the creation of private feudal land ownership and undermining the economic basis of his power.
The acute shortage of funds prompted Godaigo to impose a 5% tax on the property of provincial governors, which had a detrimental effect on the government, which lost the support of local administrators. In an effort to reduce the debt of the exploiting class to trading and usurious capital, Godaigo, like Hojo, issued a decree on the cancellation of debt (Tokuseiryo). This event deprived the ex-emperor of the support of the moneylenders, whose influence continued to grow.
Ashikaga, taking advantage of the failure of Godaigo's policy, betrayed the latter, occupied Kyoto in January 1336 and installed another representative of the Northern branch of the imperial house on the throne. Godaigo, having seized the regalia of imperial power, fled south to the country residence of Yoshino. From that time on, more than half a century of armed struggle began within the imperial house. All layers of Japanese medieval society were drawn into this struggle.
In November 1336, Ashikaga announced the resumption of military rule of the country and the transfer of power into the hands of the Field Headquarters (Bakufu). The time of Ashikaga's political dominance is called the Muromachi shogunate after the name of the area in Kyoto where the residence of the shoguns was located.
