Archaeologists and historians have information about the development of Japan from the period of the 40th millennium to the beginning of the current era. The first written source of information about the country in the archipelago is the “Twenty-Four Stories” written down in the first century AD, created by Chinese historians. Much more is known about what Japan was like in the 18th century than about the most ancient stages of the development of the power, and the richness of that era with events leaves historians a huge field of activity - the possibilities for study and clarification are endless.
Land of the Rising Sun
Early 18th century
Japan in the early 18th century was ruled from Edo, although the status of the capital at that moment belonged to Kyoto. Osaka was the largest economic center. The Tokugawa clan was in charge - Tokugawa Ieyasu received the status of shogun from the emperor back in 1603. The clan retained its leadership for centuries - the Tokugawa era lasted from the 17th to the 19th centuries. In the annals of history it is called the Edo era.
Since the beginning of the 18th century, the Land of the Rising Sun found itself in a difficult economic situation. A crisis erupted across the islands as the subsistence economy collapsed under the influence of monetary relations that spread into the countryside. The economic crisis was determined by a decrease in the price of rice, a local budget deficit, and a shortfall in the treasury. Taking into account the experience of the 16th century and the crises of other eras, Tokugawa Yoshimune, who held the reins of power, determined the direction for reform. The new policy began in 1716 under the motto "Kehoe's Reforms." Tokugawa called on officials to be thrifty, and peasants to develop new lands; At the same time, the tax rate increased and “Provisions on Legal Proceedings” appeared, regulating court cases and allowing ordinary people to complain about unscrupulous managers.
Edo in the 18th century
The first years of reform were not easy. Over time, the shogun's ideas were developed by the roju Tanuma Okitsugu. He proposed to focus on merchant corporations, granted them monopoly trade rights, and tried to develop monetary relations on the islands. The result was unexpected: along with the merchants, bribes came into political circles, and the country lost even more. Having suffered a collapse, Tanuma Okitsugu resigned, his work to change the economic model was taken over by Matsudaira Sadanobu, who proclaimed the motto “Kansei Reform”. This time was called the era of “richness through savings.” It was not possible to solve the problems completely - only in the 19th century did some of the initiatives of the 18th century bear fruit. The next reformer after Matsudaira was Tokugawa Ienari, who shifted his emphasis to urban prosperity and the development of trade.
Muromachi period
In 1333, the rift between Emperor Godaigo and his former associate Ashikaga Takauji erupted into open military confrontation. Victory remains with Takauji, and the emperor has to flee. He chooses Yoshino as his new residence and establishes the Southern Court. At the same time, another emperor ascends to the throne in Kyoto, supported by the Ashikaga clan. The Muromachi district, where government buildings were located, gave its name to this period of the country's history. Until 1392, in Japan there were two parallel emperors and two courts - Northern and Southern, each of which appointed its own shoguns.
However, neither the Ashikaga clan nor the Minamoto dynasty of shoguns that preceded them had full power - the provincial military houses were in constant competition for positions and patronage of the ruling house. Naturally, someone remained deprived, which eventually resulted in an armed confrontation. As a result of a ten-year military conflict of 1467-1477, the capital of Kyoto was destroyed, and the Ashikaga shogunate lost power. The loss of central control led to the strengthening of provincial military clans, each of which began to issue their own laws within their domains. Japan entered a period of feudal fragmentation that lasted more than 100 years.
It was at this time that the first Europeans entered the country, who turned out to be merchants who, among other goods, brought with them muskets. Based on the purchased samples, the Japanese set up the actual production of firearms. Following the traders, missionaries arrive and convert some Japanese feudal lords to Christianity. The religious tolerance of the Japanese fully allowed for the practice of several religions at the same time; the adoption of Christianity did not mean a rejection of the faith of their ancestors, but it contributed to the establishment of strong contacts with Europeans.
Development of culture and science
The beginning of the 18th century in the cultural history of the eastern archipelago is marked by the names of Mabuchi, Ihara, Chikamatsu, Hishikawa. Osaka becomes a cultural center along with the capital Kyoto. In history, this time was dubbed Genroku in contrast to Kasse - the era when influences from Edo dominated. During the Genroku period, ukiyo-dhoshi appeared - a new literature characterized by short illustrated stories dedicated to urban everyday life and the life of ordinary people.
The cultural history of the 18th century in the Japanese archipelago is also marked by the formation of ukiyo-bon. This is the name given to modern books about the lives of ordinary citizens.
The Ninge-jururi puppet theater is actively developing. Chikamatsu Monzaemon made a special contribution. Ukiyo-e prints appeared under the influence of Hishikawa Moronobu. Increasingly, the attention of artists was attracted to the life of common people. At the end of the 18th century, hedonistic teachings gained popularity.
Cultural flourishing of the 18th century
Mabuchi Kamo actively influenced modern culture, feeling that in conditions of isolation the country needed to focus on its roots. He realized that the time for imitation had passed, it was time to stop so carefully obeying the tenets of Confucianism, but he needed to follow his own unique path. He called on his contemporaries to study the ancient history of their native places, remember Shintoism and develop culture in this direction. Artists, poets, playwrights were imbued with his ideas, paid attention to the life of the common population, and merchants took an active part in the cultural life of cities. Genroku is the heyday of the Noh, Bunraku, and Kabuki theaters.
The 18th century was characterized by interest in natural disciplines. The focus of the scientific community is agronomy and mathematics. Commoners attended public schools, and government schools worked for the samurai class. The institutions taught writing, reading, arithmetic, Japanese studies, Dutch studies, and Confucianism.
Social development of Japanese society in the 17th – 19th centuries.
In Japan there were four main classes during this period:
- Samurai warriors.
- Traders.
- Craftsmen.
- Peasants.
All key positions in the country were occupied only by representatives of samurai clans. Other classes were not allowed to govern the shogunate.
Separately, there were pariahs who were not included in the social structure of society. Their responsibilities included:
- Firstly, waste disposal.
- Secondly, serving in prisons.
- Thirdly, cleaning premises, streets, palaces.
Society functioned according to the laws of two main religions - Shinto and Buddhism. At the same time, the official state religion was Neo-Confucianism. Its basics were taught in schools and higher education institutions. At the national academy, under the influence of neo-Confucianism, a special code of bushido samurai was developed.
Christianity was completely banned by the mid-1640s; all communities professing this religion were forced to go underground and hide.
Monasteries became important religious, political, cultural and spiritual centers. For example, they were required to issue certificates stating that a person is a member of the Buddhist community.
Economic decline
The 18th century was a period of economic transformations, among which there were both successful and downright ineffective. Against the backdrop of the famine experienced in the 30s, rice fields were expanded, expenses for maintaining the court and officials were reduced, and the death penalty was imposed for bribery. The peasants lived under feudal lords and could not change their master; their duties included repairs, construction work, supply of horses, and porters.
The economic crisis began already in the second decade of the century and intensified by the middle of the century. The government prohibited the export from the state of what was consumed within the country; in 1752, a ban on the export of gold was introduced. In the second half of the century, natural disasters struck the archipelago - droughts, hurricanes, earthquakes. Food shortages and hunger provoked riots. In 1772 there was a big fire; a year later, typhus swept the country. New natural disasters, disease and famine began immediately after the epidemic, and the government, left without money, tried to increase taxes. In 1787, the largest “rice riot” occurred in Edo. The rebels plundered merchant houses and rice warehouses in the city. It seemed that peace would never come to the country.
Tokugawa Ienari
Tea traditions of Japan
For the Japanese, tea drinking is a specially prepared and consistent meeting between the host (tea guru) and his guests for the purpose of a pleasant pastime. The ceremony is held in the depths of the garden - the tea house, and includes several actions that must be observed by the owner of the house.
According to Japanese tea traditions, special items are used to form a harmonious set. This includes: a box for storing tea, a kettle for water, a large bowl for sharing drinks and cups for guests, including a spoon for pouring tea, a stirrer, which only the owner uses.
The set should be simple in appearance. Teaware is passed down from generation to generation. For the tea ceremony, a certain type of locally produced powdered tea is selected - matcha. It is obtained by grinding ordinary large-leaf tea. The tea leaves are not thrown away, but eaten.
According to tradition, guests come to a tea ceremony hungry, and a snack is served symbolically. The function of food is to please the eyes, but not to satiate the stomach. Matcha is a Japanese drink with a delicate green tone.
The tea drinking ritual takes place in stages: before the meal, guests look at paintings, interior items, and take their place at the table, which corresponds to the position of each of those present. The meal lasts 2-3 hours. After preparing the thick matcha drink in the bowl, it is passed around.
Tea is drunk in small sips. Then the guests try light tea. It is more liquid and is served to each guest in a separate bowl. All utensils and interior items must correspond to the season. Kimonos worn by guests should also be appropriate for the time of year.
Second half of the 18th century
In the second half of the 18th century, the main characters in the apparatus of officials were people from the simple samurai families of Tadamitsu Ooka and Okinugu Tanuma. Okinugu, who was interested in crafts, turned out to be especially useful for the state. He established control over spending and revenues to the treasury and appreciated the importance of trade, approved the formation of merchant guilds, which turned into monopolies. Okinugu proposed improvements to irrigation systems to increase the yield of fields, intensified the settlement of Hokkaido and made the development of new fields more profitable for the population.
The next step out of the crisis was the reforms of Kansei Sadanobu Matsudaira. He further cut the financial support of officials, introduced taxes for large landowners, obliged feudal lords to stockpile rice in case of famine, and reduced the labor duties of peasants.
The end of the 18th century was marked by contact with Russia: in 1792 an embassy was sent under the leadership of Laxman. Although the ship was allowed to land in Nagasaki, the negotiations were unsuccessful, and the arrivals did not receive permission to trade.
Nagasaki today
Public life
Traditionally, Japanese social life is not that simple. The working day of each resident begins at 9 am and lasts 12 hours. These are real workaholics who take their responsibilities seriously. If a goal is set for career advancement, then a company employee must stay late at work and leave after the boss.
The Japanese do not like active and ambitious workers who show leadership qualities. There are companies in which employees go to lunch after cleaning the workplace. Vacations are taken in rare cases and for a short period. Workers prefer to go on vacation as a group.
During vacation, the Japanese always go somewhere. They are constantly moving, they don’t even stay in a hotel for more than 1 night, they love to visit all the sights, take pictures, and listen to the guide with great attention.
Young people have a defiant appearance. Teenagers walk around the city in strange clothes and with brightly colored hair. However, boys and girls behave this way until they start working. Then another stage begins - a monotonous working life in gray suits and white shirts.
Restoration (American model)
Economic recovery took place in the 20th century. Japan, inspired by the American victory, chose the Western model of development. The emperor renounced his connection with the gods, trade unions raised their heads, women received social rights, and society started talking about freedom of religion and political views. Socialists, communists and other oppositionists had the opportunity to speak out. In 1947, they adopted a constitution focused on the ideas of freedom and pacifism, and carried out a land reform that eradicated large-scale land ownership. The peasants finally became land owners.
Under the influence of Joseph Dodge, who proposed a “shock therapy” plan for economic stabilization, tax reform was carried out, the government supported banks, and responsibility for loans transferred to private financial institutions. The result was the stabilization of the domestic currency, simultaneously with the elimination of the budget deficit and the intensification of foreign trade.
The economy was recovering under American influence
Country in the Middle Ages
The country has always developed separately, because it was located on the periphery of the rest of the world. Scientists believe that the formation of Japan separately from Chinese civilization began around 100-400, so the culture of medieval Japan can be attributed to the island form of Chinese culture. The Japanese adopted a lot from Chinese civilization - religion, writing, Buddhism, rituals, art, ceremonies. A little later, Japanese civilization began to differ. It was so organically able to combine the traditions of China with its acquisitions that it became a separate, distinctive culture.
Free swimming
By the end of the occupation regime, the economy had recovered, and the country had moved to an average level of development. Delegations of entrepreneurs and scientists from the Land of the Rising Sun have become welcome guests at world conferences, courses, and exhibitions. It was possible to reconstruct all industrial sectors, shifting the emphasis from light industry to heavy and knowledge-intensive. Active import of technologies and units allowed us to save time and money and create a universal industrial structure using advanced developments.
Religion
Religion is represented by Buddhism and Shintoism. Many believers in the country consider themselves to belong to both directions at the same time. At the end of the 19th century, Shintoism was the only and compulsory religion. At the end of World War II, after the adoption of a new constitution, Shintoism lost its significance. Japanese religion is aimed at syncretism - a mixture of different religious practices. Parents and children celebrate Shinto rituals, school students pray before exams. According to Japanese wedding traditions, the bride and groom are married in a Christian church.
Agriculture
The peaceful era of Genroku allowed peasants who had previously fought as foot soldiers to concentrate on agriculture. Small feudal lords, previously involved in wars without fail, devoted all their efforts to developing the lands. The 18th century in Japan was marked by a significant expansion of irrigation systems and plowing of virgin lands. Trade crops were especially actively grown - tea, cotton, safflower. Rapeseed, hemp fields and indigo plantations appeared throughout the country.
Genroku period - era of agricultural development
Kamakura period
Starting from the 12th century, provincial military clans began to have an increasing influence on the political life of the state. The main rivalry is between the Taira and Minamoto clans. The more successful Taira, who established ties with the imperial dynasty, aroused the discontent and envy of their rivals, which led to a protracted war in which the latter were victorious. The representative of the Minamoto clan, Yoritomo, who consistently eliminated all competitors, receives from the emperor the position of seiyi taishogun and de facto dual power is established in Japan for many centuries. The administration of external rituals remains with the imperial house, and all real power belongs to the military rulers, the shoguns. A new government (shogunate) was founded in Yoritomo's hometown of Kamakura.
In 1274, the Mongols, having conquered China, set out to conquer Japan. The 30,000-strong fleet, having previously plundered the islands of Iki and Tsushima, heads to Hakata Bay. The Japanese troops, inferior to the Mongols both in numbers and in weapons, were doomed to defeat, but the typhoon that struck scattered the enemy fleet, and it did not come to a direct collision. A second attempt by the Mongols in 1281 ended with the same result - a storm buried most of the Mongol ships. It was then, apparently, that the concept of “kamikaze” was born, which literally translates as “divine wind” that destroys enemies.
Results for the 18th century
The Genroku era turned out to be a period of significant change in Japanese history. The state has become noticeably more stable than during the Sengoku years. Increasingly, talented people from the lower classes found themselves in power - from among poor samurai and even commoners. Although the period was frankly difficult due to natural disasters and a number of unsuccessful reforms, changes in the political and economic model characteristic of Genroku became the basis for further growth, showing which paths were unpromising and which were suitable for Japan and could lead to success. The experience of these years allowed us to reach the high level of development that characterizes the archipelago today.
Sexual traditions of Japan
We can talk endlessly about Japanese sexual traditions. According to Shintoism (the dominant religion), sexual intercourse between a man and a woman was not considered a sin, on the contrary, it was welcomed.
Since ancient times, a girl's chastity was not a prerequisite for marriage. Premarital sexual relations were especially widespread among the common population. Japanese aristocrats showed an unusual attitude towards the issue of chastity. They did not condemn their wife if she had sexual experience with a representative of a higher rank.
Only among the military was a girl’s virginity considered a prerequisite for a successful marriage. Otherwise, the shame fell on the whole family, especially the mother, who could not raise her daughter properly, was condemned.
