History of Japan in 20 points • Arzamas

The most significant dates and events for understanding Japanese history

Prepared by Stepan Rodin

February 11, 660 BC e. - the mythical first emperor ascended the throne 701 - the first legislative code was compiled 710 - the first permanent capital of Japan was founded 769 - an attempt at a soft coup d'etat 866 - establishing control over the imperial family 894 - termination of official relations between Japan and China 1087 - introduction mechanism of abdication 1192 - establishment of dual power in Japan 1281 - attempt to conquer Japan by the Mongols 1336 - split within the imperial house 1467 - beginning of the period of feudal fragmentation 1543 - arrival of the first Europeans 1573 - beginning of the unification of Japan 1592 - attempts at military expansion to the mainland October 21, 1600 - completion of the unification of Japan 1639 - issuance of a decree on the closure of the country 1688 - the beginning of the cultural flowering of Japan 1868 - the Meiji restoration and modernization of Japan September 2, 1945 - surrender in World War II, the beginning of the American occupation 1964 - the beginning of Japan's post-war reconstruction

February 11, 660 BC e.

The mythical first emperor ascended the throne

Emperor Jimmu.
1839–1892 © Wikimedia Commons

The information available in the ancient Japanese mythological and historical codes made it possible to establish the date of accession to the throne of the mythical first emperor Jimmu, from whom the imperial family supposedly originated in Japan. On this day, Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, underwent an enthronement ceremony in the capital he founded - in a place called Kashihara. Of course, there is no need to talk about any statehood in Japan at that time, as well as about the existence of Jimmu, or the Japanese themselves. The myth was introduced into everyday life and became part of history. In the first half of the 20th century, the day of Jimmu's enthronement was a public holiday, on the occasion of which the current emperor participated in prayers for the well-being of the country. In 1940, Japan celebrated the 2,600th anniversary of the founding of the empire. Due to the difficult foreign policy situation, it was necessary to abandon the holding of the Olympic Games and the World Exhibition. The symbol of the latter was supposed to be Jimmu's bow and the golden kite, which appeared in the myth:

“The Dzimmu army fought and fought with the enemy, but could not defeat him. Then suddenly the sky became cloudy and hail began to fall. And an amazing golden kite flew in and sat on the top edge of the sovereign's bow. The kite glowed and sparkled, it was like lightning. The enemies saw this and fell into complete confusion, and they no longer had the strength to fight.” Nihon Shoki, Scroll III.

Since Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945, Jimmu has been approached only rarely and with caution due to his image's strong association with militarism.

701

Geography

Japan includes almost seven thousand islands. However, 97% of the area is occupied by the four largest of them - Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido.

Many islands have extinct and active volcanoes. Because of this, living there is not possible, so despite the total area of 388 thousand square kilometers, Japan has an acute shortage of areas for construction and agriculture.

The country is surrounded by water on all sides, so local residents have no shortage of seafood. At the same time, this location makes one fear tsunamis and earthquakes. Natural disasters are one of the main problems of the country, because they are almost impossible to prevent.

Interesting fact: The highest point in Japan is Mount Fuji (3776 meters).

The first legislative code was compiled

Fragment of the Taihoryo codex.
702 © National Museum of Japanese History

At the beginning of the 8th century in Japan, active work continued to form institutions of power and develop norms of relations between the state and its subjects. The Japanese state model was modeled after the Chinese one. Japan's first legal code, compiled in 701 and enacted in 702, was called the Taihoryo. Its structure and individual provisions were based on Chinese monuments of legal thought, but there were also significant differences. Thus, the norms of criminal law in Japanese legislation were developed with much less care, which is also due to the cultural characteristics of the Japanese state: it preferred to delegate responsibility for punishing offenders and replace physical punishment of criminals with exile, so as not to incur the ritual impurity of kegare caused by death . Thanks to the introduction of the Taihoryo code, historians call Japan in the 8th–9th centuries a “state based on laws.” Despite the fact that certain provisions of the code had lost their relevance by the time of its creation, no one formally abolished it until the adoption of the first Japanese Constitution in 1889.

710

Kofun period

By the end of the 3rd century AD, the unification of small states into a kind of federal entity under the rule of the emperor, who lived with his court in the capital, was practically completed. Each new emperor moved to a new capital, since custom did not allow him to live in the place where the grave of his predecessor remained. It was only in 710 that the permanent capital of the state, the city of Heijō-kyō (modern Nara), was founded, and just 9 years earlier the first legislative code was drawn up, which was formally in force until the adoption of the Constitution in 1889.

Around the middle of the 6th century, the spread of Buddhism began. Despite the opposition of Shinto priests, which led to conflicts and several wars, over time the teaching gained popularity among the upper echelons of aristocratic society and became the state religion. However, the lower strata of society continued to practice Shintoism.

In 645, the aristocratic Fujiwara clan came to power, concentrating actual power in their hands, while the emperor remained only in the role of high priest.

Japan's first permanent capital founded

View of the city of Nara.
1868 © East Asian Library - University of California, Berkeley

The development of statehood required the concentration of the court elite and the creation of a permanent capital. Until this time, each new ruler built himself a new residence. Staying in a palace desecrated by the death of the previous sovereign was considered dangerous. But in the 8th century, the model of a nomadic capital no longer corresponded to the scale of the state. The first permanent capital of Japan was the city of Nara. The place for its construction was chosen based on geomantic Geomancy, or Feng Shui, a method of orienting buildings in space, in which they were located in such a way as to receive the maximum amount of positive energy and get rid of the influence of negative energy. ideas about the security of space: a river must flow in the east, a pond and a plain in the south, roads in the west, mountains in the north. Based on these parameters of the enclosing landscape, sites will later be selected for the construction of not only cities, but also aristocratic estates. The city of Nara in plan was a rectangle with an area of 25 square kilometers and copied the structure of the Chinese capital Chang'an. Nine vertical and ten horizontal streets divided the space into blocks of equal area. The central avenue of Suzaku stretched from south to north and abutted the gates of the emperor's residence. Tenno - the title of the Japanese emperor - was also a designation for the North Star, located motionless in the north of the sky. Like the star, the emperor surveyed his possessions from the north of the capital. The neighborhoods adjacent to the palace complex had the greatest prestige; removal from the capital to the province could serve as a terrible punishment for an official.

769

Asuka period (592-710).

The Asuka period is named after the location of the residences of the Yamato kings in the Asuka region (near the modern cities of Nara and Kyoto) and is characterized not only by the final formation of what would now be called a “rule of law state,” but also by increasingly intensifying political confrontation. The establishment of the power of the emperor, the formation of the institution of bureaucracy, the proclamation of state ownership of land, the establishment of an allotment system of land use.

The closest contacts with China, which by this time had finally formed a strongly centralized empire, the beginning of the Taika reform (in 646), which aimed to transform Yamato into a “civilized” (in the Chinese manner) state. The attempt to conquer Korea ends in complete failure, as a result, the armed forces were reformed, a regular army and conscription were introduced. The capital of the country is Fujiwara , the rulers are Emperors Jitto, Mommu and Gemmei.

Soft coup attempt

Monk beating a drum.
XVIII–XIX centuries © The Library of Congress

Political struggle in Japan took on various forms in certain historical periods, but the common theme was the absence of attempts to take the throne by those who did not belong to the imperial family. The only exception was the monk Dokyo. Coming from a seedy provincial Yuge family, he went from a simple monk to the all-powerful ruler of the country. Dokyo's nomination was all the more surprising because the social structure of Japanese society strictly determined the fate of a person. When assigning court ranks and distributing government positions, belonging to one family or another played a decisive role. Dokyo appeared among the staff of court monks in the early 50s. The monks of that time not only studied Chinese literacy, which was necessary for reading sacred Buddhist texts translated from Sanskrit in China, but also possessed many other useful skills, in particular healing. Dokyo's reputation as a skilled healer was established. Apparently, that’s why he was sent in 761 to the ill ex-empress Koken. The monk not only managed to heal the former empress, but also became her closest adviser. According to the collection of Buddhist legends “Nihon Ryoiki”, Dokyo from the Yuge clan shared one pillow with the empress and ruled the Celestial Empire. Koken ascends to the throne for the second time under the name Shotoku and, especially for Dokyo, introduces new positions that are not provided for by law and give the monk the broadest powers. The empress's trust in Dokyo was unlimited until 769, when he, using faith in predictions, declared that the deity Hachiman from the Usa Temple wished that Dokyo become the new emperor. The Empress demanded confirmation of the words of the oracle, and this time Hachiman said the following: “From the time of the beginning of our state until our days, it has been determined who will be the sovereign and who will be the subject. And it has never happened before that a subject became a sovereign. The throne of the heavenly sun must be inherited by the imperial house. Let the unrighteous be cast out." After the death of the empress in 770, Dokyo was stripped of all ranks and positions and expelled from the capital, and the wary attitude towards the Buddhist church lasted for several more decades. It is believed that the transfer of the capital from Nara to Heian, which was finally carried out in 794, was also caused by the state's desire to get rid of the influence of Buddhist schools - not a single Buddhist temple was moved to the new capital from Nara.

866

Nara and Heinan period

The period begins with the construction of the capital Heijo on the territory of the modern city of Nara. At this time, more than 60 provinces were subordinate to the capital, each of which was headed by its own governor appointed from the center. According to a set of laws adopted several years earlier, the land and the population living on it were considered the property of the state. During the Nara period, which lasted about 80 years, the influence of Buddhism increased greatly. The largest churches and monasteries were built in the capital. One Buddhist monk from a seedy provincial family managed to subjugate the then-living Empress Koken, who received the name Shotoku upon her re-entry to the throne, to such an extent that he even desired to become emperor. However, the death of the empress interfered with his plans, and in order to avoid the influence of Buddhists on members of the imperial family, the capital was moved to the city of Heian. Not a single Buddhist temple was built in the new capital.

During the Heian period that followed, actual power was concentrated in the hands of the Fujiwara clan. Over the course of several centuries, girls from this clan married members of the imperial dynasty, increasingly strengthening family ties. This led to the fact that key positions were often occupied by people incapable of government activities.

At the end of the 9th century, Japan ceased official relations with China, which had been quite limited until that time. If until this moment China was considered a kind of standard, then in subsequent centuries, thanks to the absence of Chinese influence, Japan developed a unique and isolated culture, reworking all previous borrowings in its own way.

Emperor Gosanjo, who ascended the throne in the middle of the 11th century, had no family ties with the Fujiwara family and wanted to rule the country on his own. Having abdicated the throne in 1086 in favor of his minor son, he effectively ruled the state from the monastery. Subsequent rulers did the same, and until 1156 the country was ruled by monastic emperors.

Establishing control over the imperial family

Actor Onoe Matsusuke as a samurai of the Fujiwara clan.
Print by Katsukawa Shunsho. 18th century © The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The most effective instrument of political struggle in traditional Japan was the acquisition of family ties with the imperial house and the occupation of positions that allowed one to dictate one’s own will to the ruler. Representatives of the Fujiwara clan succeeded more than others in this, for a long time they supplied brides to the emperors, and from 866 they achieved a monopoly on the appointment of sessho regents and, somewhat later (from 887), kampaku chancellors. In 866, Fujiwara Yoshifusa became the first regent in Japanese history who did not come from the imperial family. Regents acted on behalf of child emperors who did not have their own political will, while chancellors represented adult rulers. They not only controlled current affairs, but also determined the order of succession to the throne, forcing the most active rulers to abdicate in favor of young heirs, who, as a rule, had family ties with the Fujiwara. The regents and chancellors reach their greatest power by 967. The period from 967 to 1068 was called in historiography sekkan jidai - “the era of regents and chancellors.” Over time, they lose influence, but positions are not abolished. Japanese political culture is characterized by the nominal preservation of old institutions of power while creating new ones that duplicate their functions.

894

Heian period (794-1185).

The Heian period is named after the location of the new capital - Heian (literally “capital of peace and tranquility”, modern Kyoto , which formally remained the capital, i.e., the imperial residence right up to 1868). Marked by trends in the decline of state power associated with the loss of the state monopoly on land, the collapse of the allotment system and the formation of shoen - privately owned estates. The emergence of a brilliant aristocratic culture, the creation of numerous prose and poetic works. Political dominance of the Fujiwara family (hence the end of this period is sometimes called the “Fujiwara period” ).

Termination of official relations between Japan and China

Sugawara Michizane.
18th century © The Library of Congress

External contacts of ancient and early medieval Japan with mainland powers were limited. These were mainly exchanges of embassies with the states of the Korean Peninsula, the state of Bohai Bohai (698–926) - the first Tunguso-Manchu state, located on the territory of Manchuria, the Primorsky Territory and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. and China. In 894, Emperor Uda convenes officials to discuss the details of the next embassy to the Middle State The Middle State is the self-name of China. Officials, however, advise not to send an embassy at all. The influential politician and famous poet Sugawara Michizane especially insisted on this. The main argument was the unstable political situation in China. From this time on, official relations between Japan and China ceased for a long time. From a historical perspective, this decision had many consequences. The lack of direct cultural influence from the outside leads to the need to rethink borrowings made in the previous time and to develop Japanese cultural forms proper. This process is reflected in almost all aspects of life, from architecture to fine literature. China ceases to be considered a model state, and subsequently Japanese thinkers, to justify the uniqueness and superiority of Japan over the Middle State, will often point to political instability on the mainland and the frequent change of ruling dynasties.

1087

Culture of medieval Japan

In the mature Middle Ages, new cities began to be built, ties with China strengthened, crafts developed and trade expanded. Completely different aesthetic preferences appear, based on folk motifs. Japan is gradually acquiring distinctive features and moving to another level of development. In the artistic culture of medieval Japan, the emphasis is on the human perception of the world, the dramatic background of the actions performed. Dramatic works began to appear for theater productions. In painting and sculpture, landscape and portrait stand out as independent genres. The fine art of medieval Japan is influenced by the harsh everyday life of an era filled with conflicts. Art is permeated with a touch of Buddhism, the Zen sect is especially thriving. Previously, it was necessary to carry out incomprehensible, complex religious rituals, but the Zen sect translated the service into a simpler and more understandable form. Any Buddhist literature and multiple rituals are rejected, replaced only by the desire to understand one’s spiritual essence. Everyone could take the path of truth through contemplation and deepening into themselves.

Introduction of an abdication mechanism

The system of direct imperial rule is uncharacteristic of Japan. Real policy is carried out by his advisers, regents, chancellors and ministers. This, on the one hand, deprives the ruling emperor of many powers, but, on the other hand, makes it impossible to criticize his person. The emperor, as a rule, exercises sacred governance of the state. There were exceptions. One of the methods that emperors resorted to to gain political powers was the mechanism of abdication, which allowed the ruler, in the event of the transfer of power to a loyal heir to the throne, to govern without being constrained by ritual obligations. In 1087, Emperor Shirakawa abdicated the throne in favor of his eight-year-old son Horikawa, then took monastic vows, but continued to manage the affairs of the court, already being an ex-emperor. Until his death in 1129, Shirakawa would dictate his will to both the ruling emperors and the regents and chancellors of the Fujiwara clan. This type of government, carried out by abdicated emperors, was called insei - “rule from the chapel.” Despite the fact that the ruling emperor had a sacred status, the ex-emperor was the head of the clan, and according to Confucian teachings, all junior members of the clan had to abide by his will. The Confucian type of hierarchical relationships was also common among the descendants of Shinto deities.

1192

Features of the Japanese state under the Tokugawa shogunate

In the middle of the 16th century. one of the successful daimyo (Hideyoshi) still managed to unite the country, established a strict order, confiscated weapons from the peasants, forbade the samurai to engage in agriculture and resettled them in the cities. A new class division of the country's population was established - into samurai, peasants and townspeople. Internal customs were eliminated, a unified system of weights and measures was introduced, and monetary reform was carried out. The ruler, on pain of death, forbade the Japanese to change their faith and executed 26 Franciscans. In his quest to take over China, he initially attacked Korea but was defeated by the Chinese army.

After him, in 1598, power was seized by Tokugawa Ieyasu, who was part of the Council of Regents under the young heir Hideyoshi. He became the founder of the third shogunate - the Tokugawa, which ruled the country for two and a half centuries.

As a result of the reforms, the class system was completely transformed: at its top were the samurai, then came the peasants, artisans and merchants. Outside this system stood representatives of the fifth estate, who were engaged in dirty and unprestigious work. The class structure was closed, transition from one group to another was prohibited. The aristocracy stood apart: court ranks, sovereign princes and family nobility.

To weaken separatism, the Tokugawa daimyo carried out massive confiscations of their lands and reassignment. For his safety, he introduced the institution of hostages, in which daimyo were obliged to send their loved ones to the imperial house. A radical “shake-up” of society caused the emergence of a large group of samurai, who were not only left without masters whom they were obliged to serve, but also deprived of property and possessed only of weapons and the sacred right to use them.

Under Tokugawa, an effective system of government was created, headed by a government of five ministers with monthly replacements in a prescribed manner. Direct administration of the state was in the hands of 60 heads of special departments of the bakufu. Since 1632, special police inspectors have supervised the daimyo in their domains.

The shogunate became a hereditary form of government, and the emperor, who retained only some religious functions, had to present his heir to the shogun as a hostage. Special rules of 1615 reduced the role of the emperor to the study of ancient history, versification, ceremonies and traditions.

This system lasted for almost 250 years. However, with the advent of capitalist methods of production at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century, with the expansion of external relations, the policy of self-isolation pursued by the shogunate put Japan, whose population already exceeded 25 million people, into an increasingly crisis situation.

Establishment of dual power in Japan

Battle of the Taira and Minamoto clans.
1862 © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Military professions, like forceful methods of resolving conflicts, did not have special prestige in traditional Japan. Preference was given to civil officials who knew how to read and write and could write poetry. However, in the 12th century the situation changed. Representatives of provincial military houses entered the political arena, among whom Taira and Minamoto had particular influence. Taira managed to achieve the previously impossible - Taira Kiyomori took the position of chief minister and managed to make his grandson emperor. Discontent with the Taira from other military houses and members of the imperial family reached its climax in 1180, leading to a protracted military conflict called the Taira-Minamoto War. In 1185, the Minamoto, under the leadership of the talented administrator and ruthless politician Minamoto Yoritomo, achieved victory. However, instead of contributing to the return of power to the court aristocrats and members of the imperial family, Minamoto Yoritomo consistently gets rid of competitors, achieves the position of the sole leader of military houses, and in 1192 receives from the emperor an appointment to the position of Seiyi Taishogun - “the great commander, pacifier of the barbarians.” From this time until the Meiji Restoration in 1867–1868, a system of dual power was established in Japan. Emperors continue to perform rituals, but shoguns, military rulers, conduct realpolitik, are responsible for foreign relations and often interfere in the internal affairs of the imperial family.

1281

Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the time of the samurai began in Nippon. A power struggle begins between their families, and the Taira win. The defeated Minamoto clan formed opposition to them. The fighting continued and the Minamoto later overthrew the Taira rule.

In the 12th century, the institution of the shogunate was formed, and dual power developed in medieval Japan: the Kyoto emperor and the shogun in Kamakura, who represented the interests of the samurai. Samurai and ordinary people begin to become interested in Buddhism. Among them, the Jodo sect, which preached Amidism, was popular. The following schools of Japanese Buddhism are also becoming famous:

Jodo-shinshu,
Nichiren-shu,
Soto-Xu,
Rinzai.

While the first school paid great attention to sinners, the followers of the second focused on the Lotus Sutra, and the last two preached Zen Buddhism. The shogunate fell into decline over time, and the ruler Go-Daigu attempted to restore the monarchy (Kemmu restoration).

Shogunate period in Japan

The attempt was unsuccessful and ended in a split in the imperial power and a war between the clans. In the 14th century, the next shogunate, Muromachi, emerged, and then the third, Yoshimitsu.

The following changes are taking place in the economy, social sphere and culture:

appearance of water wheels,
using animals as draft power,
planting new crops in gardening,
cotton breeding,
improvement of forging and foundry metallurgy,
holding trade fairs,
creating communities of carriers and moneylenders,
formation of communities of burghers for protection from samurai,
evolution of self-government,
development of theater but,
design of rock gardens,
use of tatami,
development of the arts of ikebana and tea ceremony, etc.

Attempted conquest of Japan by the Mongols

Defeat of the Mongols in 1281.
1835–1836 © harashobo.com

In 1266, Kublai Khan, who conquered China and founded the Yuan Empire, sent a message to Japan demanding recognition of Japan's vassalage. He received no answer. Later, to no avail, several more similar messages were sent. Kublai began preparing a military expedition to the shores of Japan, and in the fall of 1274, the fleet of the Yuan Empire, which also included Korean troops, with a total of 30 thousand people, plundered the islands of Tsushima and Iki and reached Hakata Bay. The Japanese troops were inferior to the enemy both in numbers and in weapons, but it almost never came to a direct military confrontation. An ensuing storm scattered the Mongol ships, as a result of which they had to retreat. Kublai Kublai made a second attempt to conquer Japan in 1281. The hostilities lasted just over a week, after which the events of seven years ago were repeated: a typhoon buried most of the huge Mongol fleet and plans to conquer Japan. These campaigns are associated with the emergence of the concept of kamikaze, which literally translates as “divine wind.” For modern people, kamikazes are primarily suicide pilots, but the concept itself is much ancient. According to medieval ideas, Japan was a “land of deities.” The Shinto deities that inhabited the archipelago protected it from external harmful influences. This was confirmed by the “divine wind” that twice prevented Kublai Kublai from conquering Japan.

1336

Political system of Japan

The political system of Japan is a constitutional monarchy. In other words, formally the leader of the country is the emperor, but in reality he has virtually no power. The emperor usually acts as an ambassador and symbol of the state, while all important decisions are made by the cabinet of ministers headed by the prime minister (this is the person who is actually the main one in the system).

The country also has a parliament, consisting of the House of Representatives (480 deputies) and the House of Councilors (282 deputies). Deputies to both houses are elected by the people, and they, in turn, choose the prime minister. Thus, ordinary people influence the political course of the country only indirectly.

The Social Democratic and Liberal Democratic parties have the largest number of seats in both houses of parliament. They fight for power with varying success.

Interesting fact: The position of emperor appeared in Japan in 660 BC and the dynasty has not been interrupted since then.

Schism within the imperial house

Ashikaga Takauji.
Circa 1821 © Harvard Art Museum

It is traditionally believed that the Japanese imperial line was never interrupted. This allows us to speak of the Japanese monarchy as the oldest in the world. In history, however, there were periods of split in the ruling dynasty. The most serious and prolonged crisis, during which Japan was ruled simultaneously by two sovereigns, was provoked by Emperor Godaigo. In 1333, the position of the Ashikaga military house, led by Ashikaga Takauji, strengthened. The emperor resorted to his help in the fight against the shogunate. As a reward, Takauji himself wished to take the position of shogun and control the actions of Godaigo. The political struggle took the form of open military confrontation, and in 1336 Ashikaga troops defeated the imperial army. Godaigo was forced to abdicate in favor of a new emperor, the convenient Ashikaga. Not wanting to put up with the current circumstances, Godaigo flees to the Yoshino region in Yamato Province, where he establishes the so-called Southern Court. Until 1392, two centers of power would exist in parallel in Japan - the Northern Court in Kyoto and the Southern Court in Yoshino. Both courts had their own emperors and appointed their own shoguns, which made it almost impossible to determine a legitimate ruler. In 1391, shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu proposed a truce to the Southern Court and promised that from now on the throne would be inherited in turn by representatives of the two lines of the imperial family. The proposal was accepted, and an end to the schism was put, but the shogunate did not keep its promise: the throne was occupied by representatives of the Northern Court. From a historical perspective, these events were perceived extremely negatively. Thus, in history textbooks written during the Meiji period, they preferred to remain silent about the Northern Court, calling the time from 1336 to 1392 the Yoshino period. Ashikaga Takauji was portrayed as a usurper and opponent of the emperor, while Godaigo was described as an ideal ruler. A split within the ruling house was perceived as an unacceptable event that should not be recalled again.

1467

Early 18th century

Historians draw the first data about the history of Japan of this period from the records of sailors and traders. The notes of J. Hardy, an English merchant and writer, are considered the most valuable for historical science. He wrote: “We saw a country of extraordinary beauty with a highly developed culture. It had a strong army and a national idea, however, the first problems had already begun to be seen in the economic sphere: the people were poor, the ruling elite was swimming in gold. Japan in the 18th century."

The first attempt to cope with the unstable socio-economic situation of the country belongs to shogun Yoshimune (1716-1745). He went down in history as the author of the Kokhb reforms:

Administrative reform. The shogun decided to leave the administration unchanged. The Supreme Overlord ordered the replacement of about 80% of the administration, making it more civilian (he fired the samurai and daimyo).
Financial reform. The position of Minister of Finance appeared. The person in charge controlled the financial activities of the city magistrates and bakufu. The Minister of Finance was also responsible for finding schemes to improve the governance structure.
Fight against excesses. The shogun ordered luxury, rich food, lazy samurai, gambling to be removed from the palace and banned lavish celebrations.
Fight against corruption. The death penalty was imposed for the bribe. In addition, all relatives were charged a huge fine for not teaching their neighbor morality and honesty.
Policy of saving public funds. Yoshimune reduced the number of gokenin and hatamoto (local managers who were supported by the state).
He ordered an increase in the area under rice cultivation. Yoshimune also established a system of awards for the best rice fields. This policy made it possible to get rid of food problems forever and laid the foundation for the opening of Japan.

The beginning of the period of feudal fragmentation

Neither the shoguns of the Minamoto dynasty nor the representatives of the Ashikaga dynasty were the sole rulers to whom all military houses of Japan were subordinate. Often the shogun acted as an arbiter in disputes that arose between provincial military officers. Another prerogative of the shogun was the appointment of military governors in the provinces. Positions became hereditary, which served to enrich individual clans. The rivalry between military houses for positions, as well as the struggle for the right to be called the head of a particular clan, did not bypass the Ashikaga clan. The inability of the shogunate to resolve the accumulated contradictions resulted in major military clashes that lasted 10 years. The events of 1467–1477 were called the “turmoil of the Onin-Bummei years.” Kyoto, the then capital of Japan, was practically destroyed, the Ashikaga shogunate lost its powers, and the country lost its central administrative apparatus. The period from 1467 to 1573 is called the “era of the warring states.” The absence of a real political center and the strengthening of provincial military houses, which began to issue their own laws and introduce new systems of ranks and positions within their domains, suggest feudal fragmentation in Japan at this time.

1543

Population

The population of Japan in 2021 is 125 million 790 thousand people. But authorities are concerned that the death rate exceeds the birth rate, and young people are not eager to get married and have children.

According to the most pessimistic forecasts, by 2050 only 90 million people will live in the country. To prevent such developments, programs are being developed aimed at stimulating the growth of the birth rate.

At the same time, there are practically no refugees or migrants from other countries in Japan. Foreigners usually come here as tourists or on business trips, after which they return to their homeland.

Interesting fact: Japan is famous for its long-livers. Men here live on average 79 years, and women live 86 years.

Arrival of the first Europeans

Portuguese map of Japan.
Circa 1598 © robynbuntin.com

The first Europeans to set foot on Japanese soil were two Portuguese traders. On the 25th day of the 8th moon of the year 12 Tembun (1543), a Chinese junk with two Portuguese on board washed up at the southern tip of Tanegashima Island. Negotiations between the aliens and the Japanese were conducted in writing. Japanese officials knew how to write Chinese, but did not understand spoken language. The signs were drawn directly on the sand. It was possible to find out that the junk was accidentally washed up on the shores of Tanegashima by a storm, and these strange people were traders. Soon they were received at the residence of Prince Tokitaka, the ruler of the island. Among various strange things they brought muskets. The Portuguese demonstrated the capabilities of firearms. The Japanese were overwhelmed by the noise, smoke and firepower: the target was hit from a distance of 100 paces. Two muskets were immediately purchased, and Japanese blacksmiths were instructed to set up their own production of firearms. Already in 1544, there were several weapons workshops in Japan. Subsequently, contacts with Europeans became intense. In addition to weapons, they spread the Christian faith in the archipelago. In 1549, the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Japan. He and his students carried out active proselytizing activities and converted many Japanese princes - daimyo - to the Christian faith. The specifics of the Japanese religious consciousness presupposed a calm attitude towards faith. Adopting Christianity did not mean abandoning Buddhism and belief in Shinto deities. Subsequently, Christianity in Japan was banned under penalty of death, as it undermined the foundations of state power and led to unrest and uprisings against the shogunate.

1573

State formation

Japan of those times can only be judged by Chinese chronicles, since the Japanese did not have their own written language. The Chinese called them “wa” and mentioned that they lived in about a hundred states, a third of which maintained contacts with their country. In the 5th century, Japanese agriculture was enriched by the cultivation of:

nettles for making fabric - ramie,
cereal crops,
spices,
cannabis,
tangerines.

Rice cultivation in Japan.
Engraving Silkworm breeding and the production of silk and linen fabrics, as well as the extraction of pearls, cinnabar and lapis lazuli, developed.

The most powerful ancient Japanese state was Yamatai. This country entered into the system of Asian political relations on China's terms: it paid tribute to it and agreed with the supremacy of the Chinese emperor. He, in turn, assisted in politics the rulers who fulfilled these conditions, and allowed them to have trade relations with the Middle Kingdom.

In the 4th century, China became involved in civil strife; Silla, Goguryeo and Pekje appeared on the Korean Peninsula, expressing a desire to unify Korea, and the state formation of Yamato began the struggle for the unification of Nippon. From the 3rd to the 6th centuries, it was customary here to bury wealthy citizens in kofuns - mounds made of earth, which is why this period is also called Kofun.

Kofun period mound

In Yamato, a system of clans and titles in the executive branch developed, since the state was a federation. The heads of clans received titles from the leader in accordance with their status. The state pursued an active foreign policy. Koreans and Chinese settled here and brought with them new information and skills that contributed to the development of:

jewelry making,
engineering,
hieroglyphic writing,
medical skills,
new technology in the manufacture of ceramic tableware.

from Korean Bekje associated with Buddhism came to Nippon The new doctrine causes controversy, leading to a fight between two clans: Soga and Mononobe. The Soga clan advocated the adoption of Buddhism and won an irreconcilable struggle.

Beginning of Japanese unification

Among Japanese historical figures, perhaps the most recognizable are the military leaders called the Three Great Unifiers. These are Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. It is believed that their actions made it possible to overcome feudal fragmentation and unite the country under the new shogunate, the founder of which was Tokugawa Ieyasu. The unification was started by Oda Nobunaga, an outstanding commander who managed to subjugate many provinces thanks to the talent of his commanders and the skillful use of European weapons in battle. In 1573, he expels Ashikaga Yoshiaki, the last shogun of the Ashikaga dynasty, from Kyoto, making possible the founding of a new military government. According to a proverb known since the 17th century, “Nobunaga kneaded the dough, Hideyoshi baked the cake, and Ieyasu ate it.” Neither Nobunaga nor his successor, Hideyoshi, were shoguns. Only Tokugawa Ieyasu managed to obtain this title and ensure its inheritance, but without the actions of his predecessors this would have been impossible.

1592

Economy

In the 17th century, the military leader Tokugawa Ieyasu managed to form a shogun dynasty. Although the emperor was considered the head of the country, the shogun dynasty controlled all aspects of Japan. The need arose to create our own currency. The economy of medieval Japan depended only on rice. The standard unit of measurement was the amount of rice that a person needed to eat for one year. Taxes were also paid in rice. From the mid-16th century, the Portuguese often began to come to the country, preferring to pay in gold coins instead of rice. Local feudal lords also felt the benefits of precious metals. Tokugawa continued the work of his predecessor Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who took over most of the country's gold and silver. This is how the oban gold coin appeared, but it was not used to pay for transactions, but was given or awarded.

The Japanese nobility sought to tie the peasants to the land allotment. Large landowners tried to solve the problem of how to pacify the peasant uprising or bring back subordinates who had escaped. Special detachments of trained warriors appear, who over time formed their own closed community of samurai. A code of honor for warriors, or bushido, began to be observed, which was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bloyalty to the master. The warrior was obliged to defend his master at the cost of his life, and in case of dishonor to commit ritual suicide, or hara-kiri.

Attempts at military expansion on the mainland

Japanese warlord Kato Kiyomasa hunts a tiger while in Korea.
Print from 1896 © artelino.com

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was not distinguished by his noble origin, but military merits and political intrigue allowed him to become the most influential man in Japan. After the death of Oda Nobunaga in 1582, Hideyoshi deals with the military leader Akechi Mitsuhide, who betrayed Oda. Revenge for the master greatly increased Toyotomi's authority among the allies united under his leadership. He manages to subjugate the remaining provinces and become close not only with the heads of military houses, but also with the imperial family. In 1585, he was appointed to the post of chancellor of the kampaku, which before him was occupied exclusively by representatives of the aristocratic Fujiwara family. Now the legitimacy of his actions was justified not only by weapons, but also by the will of the emperor. After the completion of the unification of Japan, Hideyoshi attempted external expansion to the mainland. The last time Japanese troops took part in military campaigns on the mainland was back in 663. Hideyoshi planned to conquer China, Korea and India. The plans were not destined to come true. The events from 1592 to 1598 are called the Imjin War. During this period, Toyotomi troops fought unsuccessful battles in Korea. After Hideyoshi's death in 1598, the expeditionary force was urgently recalled to Japan. Until the end of the 19th century, Japan would not attempt military expansion on the mainland.

October 21, 1600

Page 27 of 28

Japan

The core of the Japanese people formed on the basis of the tribal federation of Yamato (as Japan was called in ancient times) in the 3rd–5th centuries. Representatives of this federation belonged to the Kurgan culture of the early Iron Age.

At the stage of formation of the state, society consisted of consanguineous clans (uji) that existed independently on their own land. A typical clan was represented by its head, priest, lower administration and ordinary free persons. Adjacent to it, without entering it, were groups of semi-free (bemin) and slaves (yatsuko). The first in importance in the hierarchy was the royal clan (tenno). Its isolation in the 3rd century. became a turning point in the political history of the country. The tenno clan ruled with the help of advisers, lords of districts (agata-nushi) and governors of regions (kunino miyatsuko), the same leaders of local clans, but already authorized by the king. Appointment to the post of ruler depended on the will of the most powerful clan in the royal circle, which also supplied the royal family with wives and concubines from among its members. From 563 to 645 the Soga clan played such a role. This period of history was called the Asuka period after the name of the residence of the kings in the Yamato province.

The internal policy of the Yamato kings was aimed at unifying the country and at formalizing the ideological basis of autocracy. An important role in this was played by the “Legs of 17 Articles” created in 604 by Prince Setoku-taishi. They formulated the main political principle of the supreme sovereignty of the ruler and the strict subordination of the younger to the elder. Foreign policy priorities were relations with the countries of the Korean Peninsula, which sometimes reached the point of armed clashes, and with China, which took the form of ambassadorial missions in order to borrow any suitable innovations.

Socio-economic system of the 2nd–7th centuries. enters the stage of decomposition of patriarchal relations. Communal arable lands, which were at the disposal of rural households, gradually begin to fall under the control of powerful clans, competing with each other for the initial resources: land and people. Thus, the distinctive feature of Japan was the significant role of the tribal feudalizing nobility and the tendency, more pronounced than anywhere else in the Far East, to privatize land holdings with the relative weakness of the power of the center. In 552, Buddhism came to Japan, which influenced the unification of religious, moral and aesthetic ideas.

shogun took over the country .

The entire second half of the 7th century passed under the motto of Taika reforms. State reforms were designed to reorganize all spheres of relations in the country according to the Chinese Tang model, to seize the initiative of private appropriation of the country's initial resources, land and people, replacing it with the state. The central government apparatus consisted of the State Council (Dadjokan), eight government departments, and a system of main ministries. The country was divided into provinces and districts, headed by governors and district chiefs. An eight-rank system of clan titles with the emperor at the head and a 48-rank ladder of court ranks were established. Since 690, population censuses and land redistributions began to be carried out every six years. A centralized army recruitment system was introduced, and weapons were confiscated from private individuals. In 694, the first capital city of Fujiwarakyo was built, the permanent seat of the imperial headquarters (before that the headquarters was easily moved).

Completion of the medieval Japanese centralized state in the 8th century. was associated with the growth of large cities. In one century, the capital was transferred three times: in 710 to Haijokyo (Nara), in 784 to Nagaoka and in 794 to Heiankyo (Kyoto). Since the capitals were administrative, and not trade and craft centers, after the next transfer they fell into disrepair. The population of provincial and district cities did not, as a rule, exceed 1000 people.

Foreign policy problems in the 8th century. recede into the background. The awareness of the danger of invasion from the mainland is fading. In 792, universal conscription was abolished and the coast guard was abolished. Embassies to China are becoming rare, and trade is beginning to play an increasingly important role in relations with the Korean states. By the middle of the 9th century. Japan is finally moving to a policy of isolation, leaving the country is prohibited, and the reception of embassies and ships is stopped.

The formation of a developed feudal society in the 9th–12th centuries. was accompanied by an increasingly radical departure from the classical Chinese model of government. The bureaucratic machine turned out to be permeated through and through with family aristocratic ties. There is a tendency towards decentralization of power. The divine tenno reigned rather than actually ruled the country. There was no bureaucratic elite around him, because a system for the reproduction of administrators based on competitive exams was not created. From the second half of the 9th century. the power vacuum was filled by representatives of the Fujiwara clan, who actually began to rule the country in 858 as regents under young emperors, and from 888 as chancellors under adults. The period of the middle of the 9th - first half of the 11th centuries. is called “the time of the reign of regents and chancellors.” Its heyday occurred in the second half of the 10th century. with representatives of the house of Fujiwara Michinaga and Yorimichi.

At the end of the 9th century. the so-called “state-legal system” (ritsuryo) is formalized. The personal office of the emperor and the police department, directly subordinate to the emperor, became the new highest state bodies. The broad rights of governors allowed them to strengthen their power in the province so much that they could contrast it with the imperial one. With the decline in the importance of county government, the province becomes the main link in public life and entails the decentralization of the state.

The population of the country, predominantly engaged in agriculture, numbered in the 7th century. about 6 million people, in the 12th century. – 10 million. It was divided into full-fledged (ryomin) and incomplete (semmin) paying taxes. In the VI–VIII centuries. The allotment system of land use prevailed. The peculiarities of irrigated rice cultivation, which was extremely labor-intensive and required the personal interest of the worker, determined the predominance of small-scale labor free farming in the production structure. Therefore, slave labor was not widely used. Full-fledged peasants cultivated state land plots subject to redistribution once every six years, for which they paid a tax in grain (in the amount of 3% of the officially established yield), fabrics and performed labor duties. Domain lands during this period did not represent a large master's farm, but were given to dependent peasants for cultivation in separate fields.

Officials received allotments for the duration of their positions. Only a few influential administrators could use the allotment for life, sometimes with the right to transfer it by inheritance for one to three generations.

Due to the subsistence nature of the economy, government departments predominantly had access to the few urban markets. The functioning of a small number of markets outside the capitals was faced with the absence of professional market traders and the shortage of peasant handicraft products, the bulk of which were confiscated in the form of taxes.

The peculiarity of the socio-economic development of the country in the 9th–12th centuries. there was destruction and complete disappearance of the allotment farming system. They are being replaced by patrimonial estates, which had the status of “granted” to private individuals (shoen) by the state. Representatives of the highest aristocracy, monasteries, noble houses that dominated the districts, and the hereditary possessions of peasant families applied to government bodies for recognition of their newly acquired possessions as shoen.

As a result of socio-economic changes, all power in the country since the 10th century. began to belong to noble houses, owners of shōen of various sizes. The privatization of land, income, and positions was completed. To settle the interests of opposing feudal groups in the country, a single class order is created, to designate which a new term “imperial state” (ocho kokka) is introduced, replacing the previous regime – “rule of law” (ritsuryo kokka).

Another characteristic social phenomenon of the era of the developed Middle Ages was the emergence of the military class. Having grown out of detachments of vigilantes used by shōen owners in internecine struggles, professional warriors began to turn into a closed class of samurai warriors (bushi). At the end of the Fujiwara era, the status of the military rose due to social instability in the state. In the samurai environment, a code of military ethics arose, based on the main idea of personal loyalty to the master, up to the unconditional readiness to give his life for him, and in case of dishonor, to commit suicide according to a certain ritual. This is how samurai turn into a formidable weapon for large farmers in their struggle with each other.

In the 8th century Buddhism became the state religion, quickly spreading among the top of society, not yet finding popularity among the common people, but supported by the state. In 1192, there was a sharp turn in the historical fate of the country; Minamoto Yerimoto, the head of an influential aristocratic house in the northeast of the country, became the supreme ruler of Japan with the title of shogun. The city of Kamakura became the headquarters of his government (bakufu). shogunate lasted until 1335. It was a time of prosperity for Japan's cities, crafts and trade. As a rule, cities grew around monasteries and headquarters of large aristocrats. At first, Japanese pirates contributed to the flourishing of port cities. Later, regular trade with China, Korea and the countries of Southeast Asia began to play a role in their prosperity. In the 11th century there were 40 cities in the 15th century. – 85, in the 16th century. – 269, in which corporate associations of artisans and traders (dza) arose.

With the coming to power of the shogun, the country's agrarian system changed qualitatively. Small samurai became the leading form of land ownership, although large feudal estates of the emperor, influential houses and all-powerful vassals of Minamoto continued to exist. In 1274 and 1281 The Japanese successfully resisted the invading Mongol army.

From the successors of the first shogun, power was seized by the house of Hojo's relatives, called Shikken (rulers), under whom a semblance of an advisory body appeared from the highest vassals. Being the support of the regime, vassals carried out hereditary security and military service, were appointed to the position of administrators (jito) in fiefdoms and state lands, and military governors in the province. The power of the bakufu military government was limited only to military-police functions and did not cover the entire territory of the country.

Under the shoguns and rulers, the imperial court and the Kyoto government were not eliminated, because military power could not rule the country without the authority of the emperor. The military power of the rulers was significantly strengthened after 1232, when the imperial palace attempted to eliminate the power of the shikken. It turned out to be unsuccessful - the troops loyal to the court were defeated. This was followed by the confiscation of 3,000 shōen belonging to court supporters. The second shogunate in Japan arose during long-term strife between the princes of noble houses. Over the course of two and a half centuries, periods of civil strife and the strengthening of centralized power in the country alternated. In the first third of the 15th century. the position of the central government was the strongest. The shoguns prevented the military governors (shugo) from increasing their control over the provinces. To this end, bypassing the shugo, they established direct vassal ties with local feudal lords, obliging the shugo of the western and central provinces to live in Kyoto, and the shugo of the eastern part of the country to live in Kamakura. However, the period of centralized power of the shoguns was short-lived. After the murder of shogun Ashikaga Yoshinori in 1441 by one of the feudal lords, an internecine struggle unfolded in the country, which developed into the feudal war of 1467–1477, the consequences of which affected an entire century. The country is entering a period of feudal fragmentation.

During the years of the Muromachi shogunate, a transition took place from small and medium-sized feudal landownership to large-scale ones. The system of fiefdoms (shoen) and state lands (kore) is in decline due to the development of trade and economic ties, which destroyed the closed boundaries of feudal estates. The formation of compact territorial possessions of large feudal lords - principalities - begins. This process at the provincial level also followed the growth of the holdings of military governors (shugo ryokoku).

During the Ashikaga era, the process of separating crafts from agriculture deepened. Craft guilds now arose not only in the capital region, but also on the periphery, concentrating in the headquarters of military governors and the estates of feudal lords. Production focused exclusively on the needs of the patron gave way to production for the market, and the patronage of powerful houses began to consist of providing a guarantee of monopoly rights to engage in a certain type of production activity in exchange for the payment of sums of money. Rural artisans move from a wandering to a sedentary lifestyle, and specialization in rural areas arises.

The development of crafts contributed to the growth of trade. Specialized trade guilds emerged, separated from the craft guilds. From the transportation of tax revenue products, a layer of Toimaru merchants grew, which gradually turned into a class of intermediary merchants who transported a wide variety of goods and engaged in usury. Local markets were concentrated in the areas of harbors, ferries, post stations, and shoen borders and could serve an area with a radius of 2–3 to 4–6 km.

The capitals of Kyoto, Nara and Kamakura remained the centers of the country. According to the conditions of their emergence, cities were divided into three groups. Some grew out of postal stations, ports, markets, and customs posts. The second type of cities arose around churches, especially intensively in the 14th century, and, like the first, had a certain level of self-government. The third type were market settlements at military castles and headquarters of provincial governors. Such cities, often created at the will of the feudal lord, were under his complete control and had the least mature urban features. The peak of their growth occurred in the 15th century.

After the Mongol invasions, the country's authorities set a course to eliminate the country's diplomatic and trade isolation. Having taken measures against Japanese pirates attacking China and Korea, the bakufu restored diplomatic and trade relations with China in 1401. Until the middle of the 15th century. the monopoly of trade with China was in the hands of the Ashikaga shoguns, and then began to go under the auspices of large merchants and feudal lords. Silk, brocade, perfume, sandalwood, porcelain and copper coins were usually brought from China, and gold, sulfur, fans, screens, lacquerware, swords and wood were sent. Trade was also carried out with Korea and the countries of the South Seas, as well as with the Ryukyu, where a unified state was created in 1429.

The social structure during the Ashikaga era remained traditional: the ruling class consisted of the court aristocracy, the military nobility and the top clergy, the common people - from peasants, artisans and merchants. Until the 16th century The classes-estates of feudal lords and peasants were clearly established.

Until the 15th century, when there was a strong military government in the country, the main forms of peasant struggle were passive: escapes, petitions. With the growth of principalities in the 16th century. An armed peasant struggle also arises. The most widespread type of resistance was the anti-tax struggle. 80% of peasant uprisings in the 16th century. took place in the economically developed central regions of the country. The rise of this struggle was also facilitated by the onset of feudal fragmentation. Mass peasant uprisings took place in this century under religious slogans and were organized by the neo-Buddhist Jodo sect.

Political fragmentation put the task of unifying the country on the agenda. This mission was carried out by three prominent political figures of the country: Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582), Toyotomi Hijoshi (1536–1598) and Tokugawa Izyasu (1542–1616). In 1573, having defeated the most influential daimyo and neutralized the fierce resistance of the Buddhist monasteries, Oda overthrew the last shogun of the house of Ashikaga. By the end of his short political career (he was assassinated in 1582), he had gained control of half the provinces, including the capital Kyoto, and introduced reforms that contributed to the elimination of fragmentation and the development of cities. The patronage of Christians who appeared in Japan in the 40s of the 16th century was determined by the irreconcilable resistance of Buddhist monasteries to the political course of Oda. In 1580, there were about 150 thousand Christians in the country, 200 churches and 5 seminaries. By the end of the 17th century. their number increased to 700 thousand people. Not least of all, the growth in the number of Christians was facilitated by the policy of the southern daimyo, who were interested in possessing firearms, the production of which was established in Japan by Portuguese Catholics.

The internal reforms of Oda's successor, a native of the peasantry, Toyotomi Hijoshi, who managed to complete the unification of the country, had the main goal of creating a class of serviceable taxpayers. The land was assigned to peasants who were able to pay state taxes, and government control over cities and trade was strengthened. Unlike Oda, he did not provide patronage to Christians, carried out a campaign to expel missionaries from the country, persecuted Japanese Christians, and destroyed churches and printing houses. This policy was not successful, because the persecuted took refuge under the protection of the rebellious southern daimyos who had converted to Christianity.

After the death of Toyotomi Hijoshi in 1598, power passed to one of his associates, Tokugawa Izyasu, who in 1603 proclaimed himself shogun. Thus began the last, third, longest (1603-1807) Tokugawa shogunate.

One of the first reforms of the Tokugawa house was aimed at limiting the omnipotence of the daimyo, of whom there were about 200. For this purpose, daimyo hostile to the ruling house were dispersed territorially. Crafts and trade in cities under the jurisdiction of such tozama were transferred to the control of the center along with the cities.

The Tokugawa agrarian reform once again secured peasants to their lands. Under him, classes were strictly demarcated: samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants. Tokugawa began to pursue a policy of controlled contact with Europeans, singling out the Dutch among them and closing the ports to all others and, above all, missionaries of the Catholic Church. European science and culture that came through Dutch merchants received the name Dutch science (rangakusha) in Japan and had a great influence on the process of improving the economic system of Japan.

The 17th century brought political stability and economic prosperity to Japan, but already in the next century an economic crisis began. The samurai found themselves in a difficult situation, deprived of the necessary material support; peasants, some of whom were forced to go to the cities; daimyo, whose wealth was noticeably declining. True, the power of the shoguns still continued to remain unshakable. A significant role in this was played by the revival of Confucianism, which became the official ideology and influenced the way of life and thoughts of the Japanese (cult of ethical standards, devotion to elders, family strength).

The crisis of the third shogunate became clear in the 30s. XIX century The weakening of the power of the shoguns was taken advantage of, first of all, by the tozama of the southern regions of the country, Choshu and Satsuma, who grew rich through the smuggling of weapons and the development of their own, including the military industry. Another blow to the authority of the central government was dealt by the forced “opening of Japan” by the United States and European countries in the mid-19th century. The emperor became the national-patriotic symbol of the anti-foreign and anti-shogun movement, and the center of gravity of all the rebellious forces of the country was the imperial palace in Kyoto. After a short resistance, the shogunate fell in the fall of 1866, and power in the country was transferred to the 16-year-old Emperor Mitsuhito (Meiji) (1852–1912). Japan has entered a new historical era.

So, the historical path of Japan in the Middle Ages was no less intense and dramatic than that of neighboring China, with which the island state periodically maintained ethnic, cultural, and economic contacts, borrowing from its more experienced neighbor models of political and socio-economic structure. However, the search for one’s own national path of development led to the formation of a unique culture, regime of power, and social system. A distinctive feature of the Japanese path of development was the greater dynamism of all processes, high social mobility with less profound forms of social antagonism, and the nation’s ability to perceive and creatively process the achievements of other cultures.

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INTRODUCTION

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WESTERN EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Features of the hierarchical system of society

Manners and customs

The origin and formation of feudal relations. Classes

Feudal fragmentation. The role of Christianity in the creation of a united Europe

Public administration. Peasant revolts

Economic development

Medieval cities

Medieval universities and their role in the formation of Western European civilization

Great geographical discoveries

Development of trade, agriculture and industrial production

Church Reformation

Development of science

Features of feudalism in Byzantium

Imperial power and society

Spiritual life

Decline of Byzantium

Old Russian state in the 9th-12th centuries.

Feudal fragmentation in Rus'

Formation and rise of the Moscow State (XIII-XV centuries)

General characteristics and periodization of the history of the states of the East

India

China

Japan

Arab Caliphate

All pages

Completion of Japanese unification

The founder of the third and last shogun dynasty in Japanese history was the commander Tokugawa Ieyasu. The title of Seiyi Taishogun was granted to him by the Emperor in 1603. The victory in the Battle of Sekigahara on October 21, 1600 allowed him to take the position of head of the Tokugawa military houses. All military houses that fought on the side of the Tokugawa began to be called fudai daimyo, and opponents - tozama daimyo. The first received possession of fertile lands and the opportunity to occupy government posts in the new shogunate. The possessions of the latter were confiscated and redistributed. Tozama daimyo were also deprived of the opportunity to take part in government, which led to dissatisfaction with the Tokugawa policies. It was those from among the Tozama daimyo who would become the main force in the anti-shogun coalition that would carry out the Meiji restoration in 1867–1868. The Battle of Sekigahara ended the unification of Japan and made possible the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate.

1639

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Issuing a decree to close the country

Scheme of the siege of Khara Castle during the suppression of the uprising in Shimabara.
17th century © Wikimedia Commons

The period of the reign of the shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, also called the Edo period (1603–1867) after the name of the city (Edo - modern Tokyo), where the residence of the shoguns was located, is characterized by relative stability and the absence of serious military conflicts. Stability was achieved, among other things, by refusing external contacts. Beginning with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Japanese military rulers pursued a consistent policy of limiting the activities of Europeans in the archipelago: Christianity was prohibited, and the number of ships allowed to enter Japan was limited. Under the Tokugawa shoguns, the process of closing the country is completed. In 1639, a decree was issued according to which no Europeans were allowed to be in Japan, with the exception of a limited number of Dutch merchants. A year earlier, the shogunate had to face difficulties in suppressing a peasant uprising in Shimabara, which took place under Christian slogans. The Japanese were now also forbidden to leave the archipelago. The seriousness of the shogunate's intentions was confirmed in 1640, when the crew of a ship that arrived in Nagasaki from Macau to renew relations was arrested. 61 people were executed and the remaining 13 were sent back. The policy of self-isolation would last until the mid-19th century.

1688

The beginning of Japan's cultural blossoming

Under the reign of the Tokugawa shoguns, urban culture and entertainment flourished. A surge of creative activity occurred during the years of Genroku (1688–1704). At this time, the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who later received the nickname “Japanese Shakespeare,” the poet Matsuo Basho, a reformer of the haiku genre, as well as the writer Ihara Saikaku, nicknamed by Europeans the “Japanese Boccaccio,” created his works. Saikaku's works were secular in nature and described the everyday life of townspeople, often in a humorous manner. The Genroku years are considered the golden age of kabuki theater and bunraku puppet theater. At this time, not only literature, but also crafts were actively developing.

1868

Meiji Restoration and Modernization of Japan

The rule of the military houses, which lasted more than six centuries, was brought to an end in events known as the Meiji Restoration. A coalition of warriors from the Satsuma, Choshu and Tosa domains forced Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the last shogun in Japanese history, to return supreme power to the emperor. From this time on, the active modernization of Japan began, accompanied by reforms in all spheres of life. Western ideas and technologies are beginning to be actively adopted. Japan is embarking on the path of Westernization and industrialization. Transformations during the reign of Emperor Meiji took place under the motto wakon yosai - “Japanese spirit, Western technology,” which reflected the specifics of the Japanese borrowing Western ideas. At this time, universities were opened in Japan, a system of compulsory primary education was introduced, the army was modernized, and a Constitution was adopted. During the reign of Emperor Meiji, Japan became an active political player: it annexed the Ryukyu archipelago, developed the island of Hokkaido, won the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars, and annexed Korea. After the restoration of imperial power, Japan managed to take part in more military conflicts than during the entire period of rule of the military houses.

September 2, 1945

Meiji period

After the Restoration, the emperor moved to the new capital - Tokyo. A period of active reforms begins: social classes are abolished, freedom of religion is declared, and compulsory primary education is introduced. The government buys land from feudal landowners and carries out administrative reform. Universal conscription is introduced. The transport system and communications are developing. Many students are sent to the West, and foreign teachers are invited to Japan. In 1889, the first Constitution was adopted and parliament was created.

The conflict of interest leads to a war with Russia, in which Japan wins and increases its territory. In 1910, it increases even more due to the annexation of Korea.

Surrender in World War II, beginning of the American occupation

World War II ended on September 2, 1945, after the act of complete and unconditional surrender of Japan was signed on board the American battleship Missouri. The American military occupation of Japan would last until 1951. During this time, there is a complete reassessment of the values that have been established in the Japanese consciousness since the beginning of the century. Such a once unshakable truth as the divine origin of the imperial family is also subject to revision. On January 1, 1946, on behalf of Emperor Showa, a decree was published on the construction of a new Japan, containing a provision called “self-proclamation of the emperor by a man.” This decree also articulates the concept of the democratic transformation of Japan and the rejection of the idea that “the Japanese people are superior to other peoples and their destiny is to rule the world.” On November 3, 1946, a new Constitution of Japan was adopted, which came into force on May 3, 1947. According to Article 9, Japan henceforth renounced “in perpetuity war as the sovereign right of the nation” and proclaimed its renunciation of the creation of armed forces.

1964

Beginning of post-war reconstruction of Japan

Post-war Japanese identity was built not on the idea of superiority, but on the idea of Japanese uniqueness. In the 60s, a phenomenon called nihonjinron - “reasoning about the Japanese” - began to develop. Numerous articles written within the framework of this movement demonstrate the uniqueness of Japanese culture, the peculiarities of Japanese thinking, and admire the beauty of Japanese art. The rise of national self-awareness and revaluation of values were accompanied by the holding of world-scale events in Japan. In 1964, Japan became the host of the Summer Olympic Games, which were held in Asia for the first time. Preparations for their implementation included the construction of urban infrastructure facilities that became the pride of Japan. The Shinkansen bullet trains, now famous throughout the world, were launched between Tokyo and Osaka. The Olympics have become a symbol of the return of a changed Japan to the world community.

Yayoi period (Bronze-Iron Age) 3rd century. BC - IV AD

The Yayoi period is named for a specific type of pottery first discovered in the Yayoi-machi area of Tokyo. Main settlement: northern Kyushu Island, Western and Central Japan. A powerful flow (1.2 million people) of immigrants from the south of the Korean Peninsula at this time made up a significant part of the population, a total of 3-6 million people. At this time, three stable cultural and economic zones are formed:

Hokkaido
Honshu and northern Kyushu
South Kyushu and Okinawa.

The time of the appearance of the Proto-Japanese and the Proto-Japanese culture. The transition from hunting-gathering to a productive type of farming. The emergence of “revolutionary” irrigated rice farming, the manufacture and import (from China) of metal agricultural implements. The monetary system is not formed (natural exchange of goods), there is serious social tension in society. Formation of general principles of religious practice (hiding sacred objects), defining some objects as sacred (mirror, sword). China and Korea are establishing themselves as cultural donors. Proto-Japanese culture was finally formed.